Low forming voltage non-volatile storage device

ABSTRACT

A three-dimensional array of memory elements that reversibly change a level of electrical conductance in response to a voltage difference being applied across them. The memory elements can be set to a low resistance state and reset to a high resistance state during standard operation by biasing appropriate voltages on the word lines and bit lines. Prior to standard operation, the memory elements undergo a forming operation, during which current through the bit lines is limited. A forming voltage is applied to the memory elements during forming with a polarity such that a higher voltage is applied to anodes and a lower voltage to cathodes.

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/709,349, “LOW FORMING VOLTAGE NON-VOLATILE STORAGE DEVICE,”filed on Dec. 10, 2012, by Lan, et al., which claims priority to U.S.Provisional Application 61/582,017, filed Dec. 30, 2011, incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to technology for non-volatile storage.

Description of the Related Art

One example of non-volatile memory uses variable resistance memoryelements that may be set to either low a low resistance state or a highresistance state, and can remain in that state until subsequently re-setto the initial condition. The variable resistance memory elements areindividually connected between two conductors (typically bit and wordlines). The state of such a memory element is typically changed byproper voltages being placed on the intersecting conductors.

Some variable resistance memory elements may be in the high resistancestate when first fabricated. The term “FORMING” is sometimes used todescribe putting the variable resistance memory elements into a lowerresistance state for the first time. After FORMING, the variableresistance memory elements may RESET to the high resistance state andSET again to a low resistance state.

One theory that is used to explain the FORMING mechanism, as well as theswitching mechanism to RESET and SET the variable resistance memoryelements, is that one or more conductive filaments are formed by theapplication of a voltage to the variable resistance memory elements. Oneexample of a variable resistance memory element includes a metal oxideas the variable (reversible) resistance material. In response to asuitable voltage, a conductive filament may be formed in the metal oxidesuch that there is one or more conductive paths from the top electrodeto the bottom electrode of the variable resistance memory element. Theconductive filament lowers the resistance of the variable resistancememory element. Application of another voltage may rupture theconductive filaments, thereby increasing the resistance of the variableresistance memory element. Application of still another voltage mayrepair the rupture in the conductive filament, thereby decreasing theresistance of the variable resistance memory element once again. Theinitial formation of the conductive filament is referred to as“FORMING,” the rupture of the filament is referred to as RESETTING andthe repair of the rupture of the filament is referred to as SETTING. Thevariable resistance memory element may then be repeatedly switchedbetween states by repeatedly RESETTING and SETTING the variableresistance memory element. The RESETTING process puts the variableresistance memory element in the high resistance state and the SETTINGprocess puts the variable resistance memory element in the lowresistance state. Data values are assigned to the high resistance stateand the low resistance state.

The FORMING process may impact the ability of the variable resistancememory element to exhibit proper switching behavior. For example, thevariable resistance memory element should switch between the highresistance state and the low resistance state in response to appropriatevoltages, which may be referred to as “switching within the intendedwindow.”

Current FORMING operations often use a high voltage, which can result inhigh transient currents. These transient currents make it difficult tomanage the FORMING process and sometimes may result in damaging one ormore portions of the memory device. Surge currents are very difficult tocontrol when a resistive memory layer is being formed, especially athigher operational voltage. The resistance changes quickly, often inless than 1 ns. Array lines driving the variable resistance memoryelements have capacitance and a high voltage. This capacitive energy C*Vdischarges through the suddenly low resistance path of the variableresistance memory element producing currents that can reach 100 microamps (or even the mA level) and cause the low resistance state to beeven lower than desired, or stresses the variable resistance memoryelement so that it cannot not cycle as many times as desired.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an equivalent circuit of a portion of an examplethree-dimensional array of variable resistance memory elements, whereinthe array has vertical bit lines.

FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of a re-programmable non-volatilememory system which utilizes the memory array of FIG. 1, and whichindicates connection of the memory system with a host system.

FIG. 3 provides plan views of the two planes and substrate of thethree-dimensional array of FIG. 1, with some structure added.

FIG. 4 is an expanded view of a portion of one of the planes of FIG. 3,annotated to show effects of programming data therein.

FIG. 5 is an expanded view of a portion of one of the planes of FIG. 3,annotated to show effects of reading data therefrom.

FIG. 6 is an isometric view of a portion of the three-dimensional arrayshown in FIG. 1 according to a first specific example of animplementation thereof.

FIG. 7 is an equivalent circuit of a portion of an examplethree-dimensional array of variable resistance memory elements, whereinthe array has vertical bit lines and a pillar select layer, both ofwhich are above (and not in) the substrate.

FIG. 8A is a schematic that depicts a vertical bit line, a verticallyoriented select device and a global bit line.

FIG. 8B is plan view that depicts a vertical bit line, a verticallyoriented select device and a global bit line.

FIG. 9 is a schematic of a portion of the memory system, depictingvertical bit lines above the substrate, vertically oriented selectdevices above the substrate and row select line drivers in thesubstrate.

FIG. 10 illustrates one embodiment of a memory structure with verticallocal bit lines above the substrate and vertically oriented selectdevices above the substrate that connect the bit lines to global bitlines.

FIG. 11 is a schematic of a portion of the memory system, depictingvertical bit lines and vertically oriented select devices above thesubstrate.

FIG. 12 is a schematic of a portion of the memory system, depictingvertical bit lines, vertically oriented select devices above thesubstrate and row select line drivers in the substrate.

FIG. 13 is a schematic of a portion of the memory system, depictingvertical bit lines, vertically oriented select devices above thesubstrate and word line combs (connected word lines).

FIG. 14 is a top view of two word line combs and multiple vertical bitlines.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are flow charts describing embodiments for programmingthe memory system.

FIG. 16 is a flow chart describing one embodiment for reading the memorysystem.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a row select line driver and theassociated row select line.

FIG. 18 is a schematic of a portion of the memory system, depictingvertical bit lines, vertically oriented select devices above thesubstrate, word line combs, and row select lines that run acrossmultiple blocks of memory elements.

FIGS. 19A and 19B are schematics that depict row select line drivers.

FIG. 20 depicts a cross section of a structure to implement anotherembodiment of a memory that includes two levels of row select lines andvertically oriented select devices.

FIG. 21 is a block diagram depicting one example implementation of howto connect various row select lines.

FIG. 22 depicts a memory element.

FIG. 23 is a graph of current versus voltage for a memory element, andis used to explain SET and RESET.

FIG. 24 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a process forFORMING.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

One embodiment includes a three-dimensional array of memory elementsthat can be set to a first state and reset to a second state duringoperation by biasing appropriate voltages on the word lines and bitlines. Prior to operation, the memory elements undergo a formingoperation, during which current through the bit lines is limited. Aforming voltage is applied to the memory elements during forming with apolarity such that a given bit line acts as a cathode and theappropriate word line acts as an anode, with the cathode having a lowerelectron injection energy barrier to the switching material than theanode. Such a configuration provides for a more controlled and accurateforming method that does not damage the memory device.

The memory elements used in the three-dimensional array are preferablyvariable resistive memory elements. That is, the resistance (and thusinversely the conductance) of the individual memory elements istypically changed as a result of a voltage placed across theorthogonally intersecting conductors to which the memory element isconnected. Depending on the type of variable resistive element, thestate may change in response to a voltage across it, a level of currentthough it, an amount of electric field across it, a level of heatapplied to it, and the like. With some variable resistive elementmaterial, it is the amount of time that the voltage, current, electricfield, heat and the like is applied to the element that determines whenits conductive state changes and the direction in which the change takesplace. In between such state changing operations, the resistance of thememory element remains unchanged, so is non-volatile. Thethree-dimensional array architecture summarized above may be implementedwith a memory element material selected from a wide variety of suchmaterials having different properties and operating characteristics.

The resistance of the memory element, and thus its detectable storagestate, can be repetitively set from an initial level to another leveland then re-set back to the initial level. For some materials, theamount or duration of the voltage, current, electric field, heat and thelike applied to change its state in one direction is different(asymmetrical) with that applied to change in another direction. Withtwo detectable states, each memory element stores one-bit of data. Withthe use of some materials, more than one bit of data may be stored ineach memory element by designating more than two stable levels ofresistance as detectable states of the memory element. Thethree-dimensional array architecture herein is quite versatile in theway it may be operated.

This three-dimensional architecture also allows limiting the extent andnumber of unaddressed (non-selected) resistive memory elements acrosswhich an undesired level of voltage is applied during reading andprogramming operations conducted on other addressed (selected) memoryelements. The risk of disturbing the states of unaddressed memoryelements and the levels of leakage current passing through unaddressedelements may be significantly reduced from those experienced in otherarrays using the same memory element material. Leakage currents areundesirable because they can alter the apparent currents being read fromaddressed memory elements, thereby making it difficult to accuratelyread the states of addressed (selected) memory elements. Leakagecurrents are also undesirable because they add to the overall power drawby an array and therefore undesirably causes the power supply to have tobe made larger than is desirable. Because of the relatively small extentof unaddressed memory elements that have voltages applied duringprogramming and reading of addressed memory elements, the array with thethree-dimensional architecture herein may be made to include a muchlarger number of addressed memory elements without introducing errors inreading and exceeding reasonable power supply capabilities.

In addition, the three-dimensional architecture herein allows variableresistance memory elements to be connected at orthogonal crossings ofbit and word line conductors without the need for diodes or othernon-linear elements being connected in series with the variableresistive elements. In existing arrays of variable resistance memoryelements, a diode is commonly connected in series with each memoryelement in order to reduce the leakage current though the element whenit is unselected but nevertheless has a voltage difference placed acrossit, such as can occur when the unselected memory element is connected toa bit or word line carrying voltages to selected memory elementsconnected to those same lines. The absence of the need for diodessignificantly reduces the complexity of the array and thus the number ofprocessing steps required to manufacture it. The term connected refersto direct and indirect connections.

Indeed, the manufacture of the three-dimensional array of memoryelements herein is much simpler than other three-dimensional arraysusing the same type of memory elements. In particular, a fewer number ofmasks is required to form the elements of each plane of the array. Thetotal number of processing steps needed to form integrated circuits withthe three-dimensional array are thus reduced, as is the cost of theresulting integrated circuit.

Referring initially to FIG. 1, an architecture of one example embodimentof a three-dimensional memory 10 is schematically and generallyillustrated in the form of an equivalent circuit of a portion of such amemory. A standard three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system 11 isused for reference, the directions of each of vectors x, y and z beingorthogonal with the other two. In another embodiment direction x and xare substantially 60 degrees from each other.

A circuit for selectively connecting internal memory elements withexternal data circuits is preferably formed using select devices Q_(xy),where x gives a relative position of the device in the x-direction and yits relative position in the y-direction. The individual select devicesQ_(xy) may be a select gate or select transistor, as examples. Globalbit lines (GBL_(x)) are elongated in the y-direction and have relativepositions in the x-direction that are indicated by the subscript. Theglobal bit lines (GBL_(x)) are individually connectable with the sourceor drain of the select devices Q_(xy) having the same position in thex-direction, although during reading and also typically programming onlyone select device connected with a specific global bit line is turned onat time. The other of the source or drain of the individual selectdevices Q_(xy) is connected with one of the local bit lines (LBL_(xy)).The local bit lines are elongated vertically, in the z-direction, andform a regular two-dimensional array in the x (row) and y (column)directions.

In order to connect one set (in this example, designated as one row) oflocal bit lines with corresponding global bit lines, row select linesSG_(y) are elongated in the x-direction and connect with controlterminals (gates) of a single row of select devices Q_(xy) having acommon position in the y-direction. The select devices Q_(xy) thereforeconnect one row of local bit lines (LBL_(xy)) across the x-direction(having the same position in the y-direction) at a time to correspondingones of the global bit-lines (GBLx), depending upon which of the rowselect lines SG_(y) receives a voltage that turns on the select devicesto which it is connected. The remaining row select lines receivevoltages that keep their connected select devices Q_(xy) off. It may benoted that since only one select device (Q_(xy)) is used with each ofthe local bit lines (LBL_(xy)), the pitch of the array across thesemiconductor substrate in both x and y-directions may be made verysmall, and thus the density of the memory storage elements large.

Memory elements M_(zxy) are formed in a plurality of planes positionedat different distances in the z-direction above the substrate 13. Twoplanes 1 and 2 are illustrated in FIG. 1 but there will typically bemore, such as 4, 6, 8, 16, 32, or even more. In each plane at distancez, word lines WL_(zy) are elongated in the x-direction and spaced apartin the y-direction between the local bit-lines (LBL_(xy)). The wordlines WL_(zy) of each plane individually cross adjacent two of the localbit-lines LBL_(xy) on either side of the word lines. The individualmemory storage elements M_(zxy) are connected between one local bit lineLBL_(xy) and one word line WL_(zy) adjacent these individual crossings.An individual memory element M_(zxy) is therefore addressable by placingproper voltages on the local bit line LBL_(xy) and word line WL_(zy)between which the memory element is connected. The voltages are chosento provide the electrical stimulus necessary to cause the state of thememory element to change from an existing state to the desired newstate. The levels, duration and other characteristics of these voltagesdepend upon the material that is used for the memory elements.

Each “plane” of the three-dimensional memory structure is typicallyformed of at least two layers, one in which the conductive word linesWL_(zy) are positioned and another of a dielectric material thatelectrically isolates the planes from each other. Additional layers mayalso be present in each plane, depending for example on the structure ofthe memory elements M_(zxy). The planes are stacked on top of each otherabove a semiconductor substrate with the local bit lines LBL_(xy) beingconnected with storage elements M_(zxy) of each plane through which thelocal bit lines extend.

The memory arrays described herein, including memory 10, are monolithicthree dimensional memory arrays. A monolithic three dimensional memoryarray is one in which multiple memory levels are formed above (and notin) a single substrate, such as a wafer, with no intervening substrates.The layers forming one memory level are deposited or grown directly overthe layers of an existing level or levels. In contrast, stacked memorieshave been constructed by forming memory levels on separate substratesand adhering the memory levels atop each other, as in Leedy, U.S. Pat.No. 5,915,167, “Three Dimensional Structure Memory.” The substrates maybe thinned or removed from the memory levels before bonding, but as thememory levels are initially formed over separate substrates, suchmemories are not true monolithic three dimensional memory arrays.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an illustrative memory system that can usethe three-dimensional memory 10 of FIG. 1. Data input-output circuits 21are connected to provide (during programming) and receive (duringreading) analog electrical quantities in parallel over the globalbit-lines GBL_(x) of FIG. 1 that are representative of data stored inaddressed memory elements M_(zxy). Data input-output circuits 21typically contain sense amplifiers for converting these electricalquantities into digital data values during reading, which digital valuesare then conveyed over lines 23 to a memory system controller 25.Conversely, data to be programmed into the array 10 are sent by thecontroller 25 to the input-output circuits 21, which then programs thatdata into addressed memory element by placing proper voltages on theglobal bit lines GBL_(x). For binary operation, one voltage level istypically placed on a global bit line to represent a binary “1” andanother voltage level to represent a binary “0”. The memory elements areaddressed for reading or programming by voltages placed on the wordlines WL_(zy) and row select lines SG_(y) by respective word line selectcircuits 27 and local bit line circuits 29. In the specificthree-dimensional array of FIG. 1, the memory elements lying between aselected word line and any of the local bit lines LBL_(xy) connected atone instance through the select devices Q_(xy) to the global bit linesGBL_(x) may be addressed for programming or reading by appropriatevoltages being applied through the select circuits 27 and 29.

Controller 25 typically receives data from and sends data to a hostsystem 31. Controller 25 usually contains an amount ofrandom-access-memory (RAM) 34 for temporarily storing such data andoperating information. Commands, status signals and addresses of databeing read or programmed are also exchanged between the controller 25and host 31. The memory system operates with a wide variety of hostsystems. They include personal computers (PCs), laptop and otherportable computers, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants(PDAs), digital still cameras, digital movie cameras and portable audioplayers. The host typically includes a built-in receptacle 33 for one ormore types of memory cards or flash drives that accepts a mating memorysystem plug 35 of the memory system but some hosts require the use ofadapters into which a memory card is plugged, and others require the useof cables therebetween. Alternatively, the memory system may be builtinto the host system as an integral part thereof.

Controller 25 conveys to decoder/driver circuits 37 commands receivedfrom the host 31. Similarly, status signals generated by the memorysystem are communicated to the controller 25 from decoder/drivercircuits 37. The circuits 37 can be simple logic circuits in the casewhere the controller controls nearly all of the memory operations, orcan include a state machine to control at least some of the repetitivememory operations necessary to carry out given commands. Control signalsresulting from decoding commands are applied from the circuits 37 to theword line select circuits 27, local bit line select circuits 29 and datainput-output circuits 21. Also connected to the circuits 27 and 29 areaddress lines 39 from the controller that carry physical addresses ofmemory elements to be accessed within the array 10 in order to carry outa command from the host. The physical addresses correspond to logicaladdresses received from the host system 31, the conversion being made bythe controller 25 and/or the decoder/driver 37. As a result, the localbit line select e circuits 29 partially address the designated storageelements within the array 10 by placing proper voltages on the controlelements of the select devices Q_(xy) to connect selected local bitlines (LBL_(xy)) with the global bit lines (GBL_(x)). The addressing iscompleted by the circuits 27 applying proper voltages to the word linesWL_(zy) of the array. In one embodiment, any one or combination ofController 25, decoder/driver circuits 37, circuits 21, 27 and 29, orother control logic can be referred to as one or more control circuits.

Although the memory system of FIG. 2 utilizes the three-dimensionalmemory array 10 of FIG. 1, the system is not limited to use of only thatarray architecture. A given memory system may alternatively combine thistype of memory with other another type including flash memory, such asflash memory having a NAND memory cell array architecture, a magneticdisk drive or some other type of memory. The other type of memory mayhave its own controller or may in some cases share the controller 25with the three-dimensional memory cell array 10, particularly if thereis some compatibility between the two types of memory at an operationallevel.

Although each of the memory elements M_(zxy) in the array of FIG. 1 maybe individually addressed for changing its state according to incomingdata or for reading its existing storage state, it is certainlypreferable to program and read the array in units of multiple memoryelements in parallel. In the three-dimensional array of FIG. 1, one rowof memory elements on one plane may be programmed and read in parallel.The number of memory elements operated in parallel depends on the numberof memory elements connected to the selected word line. In some arrays,the word lines may be segmented (not shown in FIG. 1) so that only aportion of the total number of memory elements connected along theirlength may be addressed for parallel operation, namely the memoryelements connected to a selected one of the segments. In some arrays thenumber of memory elements programmed in one operation may be less thanthe total number of memory elements connected to the selected word lineto minimize IR drops, to minimize power, or for other reasons.

Previously programmed memory elements whose data have become obsoletemay be addressed and re-programmed from the states in which they werepreviously programmed. The states of the memory elements beingre-programmed in parallel will therefore most often have differentstarting states among them. This is acceptable for many memory elementmaterials but it is usually preferred to re-set a group of memoryelements to a common state before they are re-programmed. For thispurpose, the memory elements may be grouped into blocks, where thememory elements of each block are simultaneously reset to a commonstate, preferably one of the programmed states, in preparation forsubsequently programming them. If the memory element material being usedis characterized by changing from a first to a second state insignificantly less time than it takes to be changed from the secondstate back to the first state, then the reset operation is preferablychosen to cause the transition taking the longer time to be made. Theprogramming is then done faster than resetting. The longer reset time isusually not a problem since resetting blocks of memory elementscontaining nothing but obsolete data is typically accomplished in a highpercentage of the cases in the background, therefore not adverselyimpacting the programming performance of the memory system.

With the use of block re-setting of memory elements, a three-dimensionalarray of variable resistive memory elements may be operated in a mannersimilar to current flash memory arrays. Resetting a block of memoryelements to a common state corresponds to erasing a block of flashmemory elements to an erased state. The individual blocks of memoryelements herein may be further divided into a plurality of pages ofstorage elements, wherein the memory elements of a page are programmedand read together. This is like the use of pages in flash memories. Thememory elements of an individual page are programmed and read together.Of course, when programming, those memory elements that are to storedata that are represented by the reset state are not changed from thereset state. Those of the memory elements of a page that need to bechanged to another state in order to represent the data being stored inthem have their states changed by the programming operation.

An example of use of such blocks and pages is illustrated in FIG. 3,which provides plan schematic views of planes 1 and 2 of the array ofFIG. 1. The different word lines WL_(zy) that extend across each of theplanes and the local bit lines LBL_(xy) that extend through the planesare shown in two-dimensions. Individual blocks are made up of memoryelements connected to both sides of one word line, or one segment of aword line if the word lines are segmented, in a single one of theplanes. There are therefore a very large number of such blocks in eachplane of the array. In the block illustrated in FIG. 3, each of thememory elements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄, M₁₃₄, M₁₁₅, M₁₂₅ and M₁₃₅ connected to bothsides of one word line WL₁₂ form the block. Of course, there will bemany more memory elements connected along the length of a word line butonly a few of them are illustrated, for simplicity. The memory elementsof each block are connected between the single word line and differentones of the local bit lines, namely, for the block illustrated in FIG.3, between the word line WL₁₂ and respective local bit lines LBL₁₂,LBL₂₂, LBL₃₂, LBL₁₃, LBL₂₃ and LBL₃₃.

A page is also illustrated in FIG. 3. In the specific embodiment beingdescribed, there are two pages per block. One page is formed by thememory elements along one side of the word line of the block and theother page by the memory elements along the opposite side of the wordline. The example page marked in FIG. 3 is formed by memory elementsM₁₁₄, M₁₂₄ and M₁₃₄. Of course, a page will typically have a very largenumber of memory elements in order to be able to program and read alarge amount of data at one time. Only a few of the storage elements ofthe page of FIG. 3 are included, for simplicity in explanation.

Example resetting, programming and reading operations of the memoryarray of FIGS. 1 and 3, when operated as array 10 in the memory systemof FIG. 2, will now be described. For these examples, each of the memoryelements M_(zxy) is taken to include a non-volatile memory material thatcan be switched between two stable states of different resistance levelsby impressing voltages (or currents) of different polarity across thememory element, or voltages of the same polarity but differentmagnitudes and/or duration. For example, one class of material may beplaced into a high resistance state by passing current in one directionthrough the element, and into a low resistance state by passing currentin the other direction through the element. Or, in the case of switchingusing the same voltage polarity, one element may need a higher voltageand a shorter time to switch to a high resistance state and a lowervoltage and a longer time to switch to a lower resistance state. Theseare the two memory states of the individual memory elements thatindicate storage of one bit of data, which is either a “0” or a “1,”depending upon the memory element state.

To reset (e.g., erase) a block of memory elements, the memory elementsin that block are placed into their high resistance state. This statewill be designated as the logical data state “1,” following theconvention used in current flash memory arrays but it couldalternatively be designated to be a “0.” As shown by the example in FIG.3, a block includes all the memory elements that are electricallyconnected to one word line WL or segment thereof. A block is thesmallest unit of memory elements in the array that are reset together.It can include thousands of memory elements. If a row of memory elementson one side of a word line includes 1000 of them, for example, a blockwill have 2000 memory elements from the two rows on either side of theword line.

The following steps may be taken to reset all the memory elements of ablock, using the block illustrated in FIG. 3 as an example:

-   -   1. Set all of the global bit lines (GBL₁, GBL₂ and GBL₃ in the        array of FIGS. 1 and 3) to zero volts, by the circuits 21 of        FIG. 2.    -   2. Set at least the two row select lines on either side of the        one word line of the block to H′ volts, so that the local bit        lines on each side of the word line in the y-direction are        connected to their respective global bit lines through their        select devices and therefore brought to zero volts. The voltage        H′ is made high enough to turn on the select devices Q_(xy), for        example, something in a range of 1-6 volts, typically 3 volts.        The block shown in FIG. 3 includes the word line WL₁₂, so the        row select lines SG₂ and SG₃ (FIG. 1) on either side of that        word line are set to H′ volts, by the circuits 29 of FIG. 2, in        order to turn on the select devices Q₁₂, Q₂₂, Q₃₂, Q₁₃, Q₂₃ and        Q₃₃. This causes each of the local bit lines LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂,        LBL₃₂, LBL₁₃, LBL₂₃ and LBL₃₃ in two adjacent rows extending in        the x-direction to be connected to respective ones of the global        bit lines GBL1, GBL2 and GBL3. Two of the local bit lines        adjacent to each other in the y-direction are connected to a        single global bit line. Those local bit lines are then set to        the zero volts of the global bit lines. The remaining local bit        lines preferably remain unconnected and with their voltages        floating.    -   3. Set the word line of the block being reset to H volts. This        reset voltage value is dependent on the switching material in        the memory element and can be between a fraction of a volt to a        few volts. All other word lines of the array, including the        other word lines of selected plane 1 and all the word lines on        the other unselected planes, are set to zero volts. In the array        of FIGS. 1 and 3, word line WL₁₂ is placed at H volts, while all        other word lines in the array are placed at zero volts, all by        the circuits 27 of FIG. 2.

The result is that H volts are placed across each of the memory elementsof the block. In the example block of FIG. 3, this includes the memoryelements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄, M₁₃₄, M₁₁₅, M₁₂₅ and M₁₃₅. For the type of memorymaterial being used as an example, the resulting currents through thesememory elements places any of them not already in a high resistancestate, into that re-set state.

It may be noted that no stray currents will flow because only one wordline has a non-zero voltage. The voltage on the one word line of theblock can cause current to flow to ground only through the memoryelements of the block. There is also nothing that can drive any of theunselected and electrically floating local bit lines to H volts, so novoltage difference will exist across any other memory elements of thearray outside of the block. Therefore no voltages are applied acrossunselected memory elements in other blocks that can cause them to beinadvertently disturbed or reset.

It may also be noted that multiple blocks may be concurrently reset bysetting any combination of word lines and the adjacent select gates to Hor H′ respectively. In this case, the only penalty for doing so is anincrease in the amount of current that is required to simultaneouslyreset an increased number of memory elements. This affects the size ofthe power supply that is required. In some embodiments, less than allmemory elements of a block will be simultaneously reset.

The memory elements of a page are preferably programmed concurrently, inorder to increase the parallelism of the memory system operation. Anexpanded version of the page indicated in FIG. 3 is provided in FIG. 4,with annotations added to illustrate a programming operation. Theindividual memory elements of the page are initially in their resetstate because all the memory elements of its block have previously beenreset. The reset state is taken herein to represent a logical data “1.”For any of these memory elements to store a logical data “0” inaccordance with incoming data being programmed into the page, thosememory elements are switched into their low resistance state, their setstate, while the remaining memory elements of the page remain in thereset state.

For programming a page, only one row of select devices is turned on,resulting in only one row of local bit lines being connected to theglobal bit lines. This connection alternatively allows the memoryelements of both pages of the block to be programmed in two sequentialprogramming cycles, which then makes the number of memory elements inthe reset and programming units equal.

Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, an example programming operation within theindicated one page of memory elements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄ and M₁₃₄ is described,as follows:

-   -   1. The voltages placed on the global bit lines are in accordance        with the pattern of data received by the memory system for        programming. In the example of FIG. 4, GBL₁ carries logical data        bit “1”, GBL₂ the logical bit “0” and GBL₃ the logical bit “1.”        The bit lines are set respectively to corresponding voltages M,        H and M, as shown, where the M level voltage is high but not        sufficient to program a memory element and the H level is high        enough to force a memory element into the programmed state. The        M level voltage may be about one-half of the H level voltage,        between zero volts and H. For example, a M level can be 0.7        volt, and a H level can be 1.5 volt. The H level used for        programming is not necessary the same as the H level used for        resetting or reading. In this case, according to the received        data, memory elements M₁₁₄ and M₁₃₄ are to remain in their reset        state, while memory element M₁₂₄ is being programmed. Therefore,        the programming voltages are applied only to memory element M₁₂₄        of this page by the following steps.    -   2. Set the word line of the page being programmed to 0 volts, in        this case selected word line WL₁₂. This is the only word line to        which the memory elements of the page are connected. Each of the        other word lines on all planes is set to the M level. These word        line voltages are applied by the circuits 27 of FIG. 2.    -   3. Set one of the row select lines below and on either side of        the selected word line to the H′ voltage level, in order to        select a page for programming. For the page indicated in FIGS. 3        and 4, the H′ voltage is placed on row select line SG₂ in order        to turn on select devices Q₁₂, Q₂₂ and Q₃₂ (FIG. 1). All other        row select lines, namely lines SG₁ and SG₃ in this example, are        set to 0 volts in order to keep their select devices off. The        row select line voltages are applied by the circuits 29 of        FIG. 2. This connects one row of local bit lines to the global        bit lines and leaves all other local bit lines floating. In this        example, the row of local bit lines LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂ and LBL₃₂ are        connected to the respective global bit lines GBL₁, GBL₂ and GBL₃        through the select devices that are turned on, while all other        local bit lines (LBLs) of the array are left floating.

The result of this operation, for the example memory element materialmentioned above, is that a programming current I_(PROG) is sent throughthe memory element M₁₂₄, thereby causing that memory element to changefrom a reset state to a set (programmed) state. The same will occur withother memory elements (not shown) that are connected between theselected word line WL₁₂ and a local bit line (LBL) that has theprogramming voltage level H applied.

An example of the relative timing of applying the above-listedprogramming voltages is to initially set all the global bit lines(GBLs), the selected row select line (SG), the selected word line andtwo adjacent word lines on either side of the selected word line on theone page all to the voltage level M. After this, selected ones of theGBLs are raised to the voltage level H according to the data beingprogrammed while simultaneously dropping the voltage of the selectedword line to 0 volts for the duration of the programming cycle. The wordlines in plane 1 other than the selected word line WL₁₂ and all wordlines in the unselected other planes can be weakly driven to M, somelower voltage or allowed to float in order to reduce power that must bedelivered by word line drivers that are part of the circuits 27 of FIG.2.

By floating all the local bit lines other than the selected row (in thisexample, all but LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂ and LBL₃₂), voltages can be looselycoupled to outer word lines of the selected plane 1 and word lines ofother planes that are allowed to float through memory elements in theirlow resistance state (programmed) that are connected between thefloating local bit lines and adjacent word lines. These outer word linesof the selected plane and word lines in unselected planes, althoughallowed to float, may eventually be driven up to voltage level M througha combination of programmed memory elements.

There are typically parasitic currents present during the programmingoperation that can increase the currents that must be supplied throughthe selected word line and global bit lines. During programming thereare two sources of parasitic currents, one to the adjacent page in adifferent block and another to the adjacent page in the same block. Anexample of the first is the parasitic current I_(P1) shown on FIG. 4from the local bit line LBL₂₂ that has been raised to the voltage levelH during programming. The memory element M₁₂₃ is connected between thatvoltage and the voltage level M on its word line WL₁₁. This voltagedifference can cause the parasitic current −I_(P1) to flow. Since thereis no such voltage difference between the local bit lines LBL₁₂ or LBL₃₂and the word line WL₁₁, no such parasitic current flows through eitherof the memory elements M₁₁₃ or M₁₃₃, a result of these memory elementsremaining in the reset state according to the data being programmed.

Other parasitic currents can similarly flow from the same local bit lineLBL₂₂ to an adjacent word line in other planes. The presence of thesecurrents may limit the number of planes that can be included in thememory system since the total current may increase with the number ofplanes. The limitation for programming is in the current capacity of thememory power supply, so the maximum number of planes is a tradeoffbetween the size of the power supply and the number of planes. A numberof 4-16 planes may generally be used in most cases, but a differentamount can also be used.

The other source of parasitic currents during programming is to anadjacent page in the same block. The local bit lines that are leftfloating (all but those connected to the row of memory elements beingprogrammed) will tend to be driven to the voltage level M of unselectedword lines through any programmed memory element on any plane. This inturn can cause parasitic currents to flow in the selected plane fromthese local bit lines at the M voltage level to the selected word linethat is at zero volts. An example of this is given by the currentsI_(P2), I_(P3) and I_(P4) shown in FIG. 4. In general, these currentswill be much less than the other parasitic current I_(P1) discussedabove, since these currents flow only through those memory elements intheir conductive state that are adjacent to the selected word line inthe selected plane.

The above-described programming techniques ensure that the selected pageis programmed (local bit lines at H, selected word line at 0) and thatadjacent unselected word lines are at M. As mentioned earlier, otherunselected word lines can be weakly driven to M or initially driven to Mand then left floating. Alternately, word lines in any plane distantfrom the selected word line (for example, more than 5 word lines away)can also be left uncharged (at ground) or floating because the parasiticcurrents flowing to them are so low as to be negligible compared to theidentified parasitic currents since they must flow through a seriescombination of five or more ON devices (devices in their low resistancestate). This can reduce the power dissipation caused by charging a largenumber of word lines.

While the above description assumes that each memory element of the pagebeing programmed will reach its desired ON value with one application ofa programming pulse, a program-verify technique commonly used in NOR orNAND flash memory technology may alternately be used. In this process, acomplete programming operation for a given page includes of a series ofindividual programming operations in which a smaller change in ONresistance occurs within each program operation. Interspersed betweeneach program operation is a verify (read) operation that determineswhether an individual memory element has reached its desired programmedlevel of resistance or conductance consistent with the data beingprogrammed in the memory element. The sequence of program/verify isterminated for each memory element as it is verified to reach thedesired value of resistance or conductance. After all of memory elementsbeing programmed are verified to have reached their desired programmedvalue, programming of the page of memory elements is then completed. Anexample of this technique is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,172,338.

With reference primarily to FIG. 5, the parallel reading of the statesof a page of memory elements, such as the memory elements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄ andM₁₃₄, is described. The steps of an example reading process are asfollows:

-   -   1. Set all the global bit lines GBLs and all the word lines WL        to a voltage V_(R). The voltage V_(R) is simply a convenient        reference voltage and can be any number of values but will        typically be between 0 and 1 volt. In general, for operating        modes where repeated reads occur, it is convenient to set all        word lines in the array to V_(R) in order to reduce parasitic        read currents, even though this requires charging all the word        lines. However, as an alternative, it is only necessary to raise        the selected word line (WL₁₂ in FIG. 5), the word line in each        of the other planes that is in the same position as the selected        word line and the immediately adjacent word lines in all planes        to V_(R).    -   2. Turn on one row of select devices by placing a voltage on the        control line adjacent to the selected word line in order to        define the page to be read. In the example of FIGS. 1 and 5, a        voltage is applied to the row select line SG₂ in order to turn        on the select devices Q₁₂, Q₂₂ and Q₃₂. This connects one row of        local bit lines LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂ and LBL₃₂ to their respective        global bit lines GBL₁, GBL₂ and GBL₃. These local bit lines are        then connected to individual sense amplifiers (SA) that are        present in the circuits 21 of FIG. 2, and assume the potential        V_(R) of the global bit lines to which they are connected. All        other local bit lines LBLs are allowed to float.    -   3. Set the selected word line (WL₁₂) to a voltage of        V_(R)±Vsense. The sign of Vsense is chosen based on the sense        amplifier and has a magnitude of about 0.5 volt. The voltages on        all other word lines remain the same.    -   4. Sense current flowing into (V_(R)+Vsense) or out of        (V_(R)−Vsense) each sense amplifier for time T. These are the        currents I_(R1), I_(R2) and I_(R3) shown to be flowing through        the addressed memory elements of the example of FIG. 5, which        are proportional to the programmed states of the respective        memory elements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄ and M₁₃₄. The states of the memory        elements M₁₁₄, M₁₂₄ and M₁₃₄ are then given by binary outputs of        the sense amplifiers within the circuits 21 that are connected        to the respective global bit lines GBL₁, GBL₂ and GBL₃. These        sense amplifier outputs are then sent over the lines 23 (FIG. 2)        to the controller 25, which then provides the read data to the        host 31.    -   5. Turn off the select devices (Q₁₂, Q₂₂ and Q₃₂) by removing        the voltage from the row select line (SG₂), in order to        disconnect the local bit lines from the global bit lines, and        return the selected word line (WL₁₂) to the voltage V_(R).

Parasitic currents during such a read operation have two undesirableeffects. As with programming, parasitic currents place increased demandson the memory system power supply. In addition, it is possible forparasitic currents to exist that are erroneously included in thecurrents though the addressed memory elements that are being read. Thiscan therefore lead to erroneous read results if such parasitic currentsare large enough.

As in the programming case, all of the local bit lines except theselected row (LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂ and LBL₃₂ in the example of FIG. 5) arefloating. But the potential of the floating local bit lines may bedriven to V_(R) by any memory element that is in its programmed (lowresistance) state and connected between a floating local bit line and aword line at VR, in any plane. A parasitic current comparable to Iii inthe programming case (FIG. 4) is not present during data read becauseboth the selected local bit lines and the adjacent non-selected wordlines are both at V_(R). Parasitic currents may flow, however, throughlow resistance memory elements connected between floating local bitlines and the selected word line. These are comparable to the currentsI_(P2), I_(P3), and I_(P4) during programming (FIG. 4), indicated asI_(P5), I_(P6) and I_(P7) in FIG. 5. Each of these currents can be equalin magnitude to the maximum read current through an addressed memoryelement. However, these parasitic currents are flowing from the wordlines at the voltage V_(R) to the selected word line at a voltageV_(R)±Vsense without flowing through the sense amplifiers. Theseparasitic currents will not flow through the selected local bit lines(LBL₁₂, LBL₂₂ and LBL₃₂ in FIG. 5) to which the sense amplifiers areconnected. Although they contribute to power dissipation, theseparasitic currents do not therefore introduce a sensing error.

Although the neighboring word lines should be at V_(R) to minimizeparasitic currents, as in the programming case it may be desirable toweakly drive these word lines or even allow them to float. In onevariation, the selected word line and the neighboring word lines can bepre-charged to V_(R) and then allowed to float. When the sense amplifieris energized, it may charge them to V_(R) so that the potential on theselines is accurately set by the reference voltage from the senseamplifier (as opposed to the reference voltage from the word linedriver). This can occur before the selected word line is changed toV_(R)±Vsense but the sense amplifier current is not measured until thischarging transient is completed.

Reference cells may also be included within the memory array 10 tofacilitate any or all of the common data operations (erase, program, orread). A reference cell is a cell that is structurally as nearlyidentical to a data cell as possible in which the resistance is set to aparticular value. They are useful to cancel or track resistance drift ofdata cells associated with temperature, process non-uniformities,repeated programming, time or other cell properties that may vary duringoperation of the memory. Typically they are set to have a resistanceabove the highest acceptable low resistance value of a memory element inone data state (such as the ON resistance) and below the lowestacceptable high resistance value of a memory element in another datastate (such as the OFF resistance). Reference cells may be “global” to aplane or the entire array, or may be contained within each block orpage.

In one embodiment, multiple reference cells may be contained within eachpage. The number of such cells may be only a few (less than 10), or maybe up to a several percent of the total number of cells within eachpage. In this case, the reference cells are typically reset and writtenin a separate operation independent of the data within the page. Forexample, they may be set one time in the factory, or they may be setonce or multiple times during operation of the memory array. During areset operation described above, all of the global bit lines are setlow, but this can be modified to only set the global bit linesassociated with the memory elements being reset to a low value while theglobal bit lines associated with the reference cells are set to anintermediate value, thus inhibiting them from being reset. Alternately,to reset reference cells within a given block, the global bit linesassociated with the reference cells are set to a low value while theglobal bit lines associated with the data cells are set to anintermediate value. During programming, this process is reversed and theglobal bit lines associated with the reference cells are raised to ahigh value to set the reference cells to a desired ON resistance whilethe memory elements remain in the reset state. Typically the programmingvoltages or times will be changed to program reference cells to a higherON resistance than when programming memory elements.

If, for example, the number of reference cells in each page is chosen tobe 1% of the number of data storage memory elements, then they may bephysically arranged along each word line such that each reference cellis separated from its neighbor by 100 data cells, and the senseamplifier associated with reading the reference cell can share itsreference information with the intervening sense amplifiers readingdata. Reference cells can be used during programming to ensure the datais programmed with sufficient margin. Further information regarding theuse of reference cells within a page can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos.6,222,762, 6,538,922, 6,678,192 and 7,237,074.

In a particular embodiment, reference cells may be used to approximatelycancel parasitic currents in the array. In this case the value of theresistance of the reference cell(s) is set to that of the reset staterather than a value between the reset state and a data state asdescribed earlier. The current in each reference cell can be measured byits associated sense amplifier and this current subtracted fromneighboring data cells. In this case, the reference cell isapproximating the parasitic currents flowing in a region of the memoryarray that tracks and is similar to the parasitic currents flowing inthat region of the array during a data operation. This correction can beapplied in a two step operation (measure the parasitic current in thereference cells and subsequently subtract its value from that obtainedduring a data operation) or simultaneously with the data operation. Oneway in which simultaneous operation is possible is to use the referencecell to adjust the timing or reference levels of the adjacent data senseamplifiers. An example of this is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 7,324,393.

In conventional two-dimensional arrays of variable resistance memoryelements, a diode is usually included in series with the memory elementbetween the crossing bit and word lines. The primary purpose of thediodes is to reduce the number and magnitudes of parasitic currentsduring resetting (erasing), programming and reading the memory elements.A significant advantage of the three-dimensional array herein is thatresulting parasitic currents are fewer and therefore have a reducednegative effect on operation of the array than in other types of arrays.

Diodes may also be connected in series with the individual memoryelements of the three-dimensional array, as currently done in otherarrays of variable resistive memory elements, in order to reduce furtherthe number of parasitic currents but there are disadvantages in doingso. Primarily, the manufacturing process becomes more complicated. Addedmasks and added manufacturing steps are then necessary. Also, sinceformation of the silicon p-n diodes often requires at least one hightemperature step, the word lines and local bit lines cannot then be madeof metal having a low melting point, such as aluminum that is commonlyused in integrated circuit manufacturing, because it may melt during thesubsequent high temperature step. Use of a metal, or composite materialincluding a metal, is preferred because of its higher conductivity thanthe conductively doped polysilicon material that is typically used forbit and word lines because of being exposed to such high temperatures.An example of an array of resistive switching memory elements having adiode formed as part of the individual memory elements is given inpatent application publication no. US 2009/0001344 A1.

Because of the reduced number of parasitic currents in thethree-dimensional array herein, the total magnitude of parasiticcurrents can be managed without the use of such diodes. In addition tothe simpler manufacturing processes, the absence of the diodes allowsbi-polar operation; that is, an operation in which the voltage polarityto switch the memory element from its first state to its second memorystate is opposite of the voltage polarity to switch the memory elementfrom its second to its first memory state. The advantage of the bi-polaroperation over a unipolar operation (same polarity voltage is used toswitch the memory element from its first to second memory state as fromits second to first memory state) is the reduction of power to switchthe memory element and an improvement in the reliability of the memoryelement. These advantages of the bi-polar operation are seen in memoryelements in which formation and destruction of a conductive filament isthe physical mechanism for switching, as in the memory elements madefrom metal oxides and solid electrolyte materials. For these reasons,the embodiments discussed below utilize memory elements that includeresistance switching material and do not include a diode or otherseparate steering device. The use of memory elements that have anon-linear current vs voltage relationship are also envisioned. Forexample as the voltage across a HfOx memory element is reduced from theprogramming voltage to one half the programming voltage the current isreduced by a factor of 5 or even more. In such an embodiment the totalmagnitude of parasitic currents can be managed without the use of diodesin the array.

The level of parasitic currents increases with the number of planes andwith the number of memory elements connected along the individual wordlines within each plane. The increase in parasitic currents increasesonly slightly with additional planes because the selected word line ison only one plane such as WL12 in FIG. 4. Parasitic currents Ip1, Ip2,Ip3, and Ip4 are all on the plane that contains WL12. Leakage currentson other planes are less significant because the floating lines tend tominimize currents on elements not directly connected to the selectedword line. Also since the number of unselected word lines on each planedoes not significantly affect the amount of parasitic current, theplanes may individually include a large number of word lines. Theparasitic currents resulting from a large number of memory elementsconnected along the length of individual word lines can further bemanaged by segmenting the word lines into sections of fewer numbers ofmemory elements. Erasing, programming and reading operations are thenperformed on the memory elements connected along one segment of eachword line instead of the total number of memory elements connected alongthe entire length of the word line.

The re-programmable non-volatile memory array being described herein hasmany advantages. The quantity of digital data that may be stored perunit of semiconductor substrate area is high. It may be manufacturedwith a lower cost per stored bit of data. Only a few masks are necessaryfor the entire stack of planes, rather than requiring a separate set ofmasks for each plane. The number of local bit line connections with thesubstrate is significantly reduced over other multi-plane structuresthat do not use the vertical local bit lines. The architectureeliminates the need for each memory element to have a diode in serieswith the resistive memory element, thereby further simplifying themanufacturing process and enabling the use of metal conductive lines.Also, the voltages necessary to operate the array are much lower thanthose used in current commercial flash memories.

Since at least one-half of each current path is vertical, the voltagedrops present in large cross-point arrays are significantly reduced. Thereduced length of the current path due to the shorter vertical componentmeans that there are approximately one-half the number memory elementson each current path and thus the leakage currents are reduced as is thenumber of unselected memory elements disturbed during a data programmingor read operation. For example, if there are N cells associated with aword line and N cells associated with a bit line of equal length in aconventional array, there are 2N cells associated or “touched” withevery data operation. In the vertical local bit line architecturedescribed herein, there are n cells associated with the bit line (n isthe number of planes and is typically a small number such as 4 to 16),or N+n cells are associated with a data operation. For a large N thismeans that the number of cells affected by a data operation isapproximately one-half as many as in a conventional three-dimensionalarray.

The material used for the non-volatile memory elements M_(zxy) in thearray of FIG. 1 can be a chalcogenide, a metal oxide (MeOx), CMO, or anyone of a number of materials that exhibit a stable, reversible shift inresistance in response to an external voltage applied to or currentpassed through the material.

Metal oxides (MeOx) are characterized by being insulating when initiallydeposited. One suitable metal oxide is a titanium oxide (TiO_(x)) inwhich near-stoichiometric TiO₂ bulk material is altered in an annealingprocess to create an oxygen deficient layer (or a layer with oxygenvacancies) in proximity of the bottom electrode. The top platinumelectrode for memory storage element comprising TiO_(x), with its highwork function, creates a high potential Pt/TiO₂ barrier for electrons.As a result, at moderate voltages (below one volt), a very low currentwill flow through the structure. The bottom Pt/TiO_(2-x) barrier islowered by the presence of the oxygen vacancies (O⁺ ₂) and behaves as alow resistance contact (ohmic contact). (The oxygen vacancies in TiO₂are known to act as n-type dopant, transforming the insulating oxide inan electrically conductive doped semiconductor.) The resulting compositestructure is in a non-conductive (high resistance) state.

But when a large negative voltage (such as 1.5 volt) is applied acrossthe structure, the oxygen vacancies drift toward the top electrode and,as a result, the potential barrier Pt/TiO₂ is reduced and a relativelyhigh current can flow through the structure. The device is then in itslow resistance (conductive) state. Experiments reported by others haveshown that conduction is occurring in filament-like regions of the TiO₂,perhaps along grain boundaries.

The conductive path is broken by applying a large positive voltageacross the structure. Under this positive bias, the oxygen vacanciesmove away from the proximity of the top Pt/TiO₂ barrier, and “break” thefilament. The device returns to its high resistance state. Both of theconductive and non-conductive states are non-volatile. Sensing theconduction of the memory storage element by applying a voltage around0.5 volts can easily determine the state of the memory element.

While this specific conduction mechanism may not apply to all metaloxides, as a group, they have a similar behavior: transition from a lowconductive state to a high conductive occurs state when appropriatevoltages are applied, and the two states are non-volatile. Examples ofother materials that can be used for the non-volatile memory elementsM_(zxy) in the array of FIG. 1 include HfOx, ZrOx, WOx, NiOx, CoOx,CoalOx, MnOx, ZnMn₂O₄, ZnOx, TaOx, NbOx, HfSiOx, HfAlOx. Suitable topelectrodes include metals with a high work function (typically >4.5 eV)capable to getter oxygen in contact with the metal oxide to createoxygen vacancies at the contact. Some examples are TaCN, TiCN, Ru, RuO,Pt, Ti rich TiOx, TiAlN, TaAlN, TiSiN, TaSiN, IrO₂ and dopedpolysilicon. Suitable materials for the bottom electrode are anyconducting oxygen rich material such as Ti(O)N, Ta(O)N, TiN and TaN. Thethicknesses of the electrodes are typically 1 nm or greater. Thicknessesof the metal oxide are generally in the range of 2 nm to 20 nm.

One example non-volatile memory element uses Hafnium Oxide (e.g., HfO₂)as a reversible resistance-switching material, and positions thereversible resistance-switching material between two electrodes. A firstelectrode is positioned between reversible resistance-switching materialand a first conductor (e.g. bit line or word line). In one embodiment,the first electrode is made of platinum. The second electrode ispositioned between reversible resistance-switching material a secondconductor (e.g, bit line or word line). In one embodiment, the secondelectrode is made of Titanium Nitride, and serves as a barrier layer. Inanother embodiment, the second electrode is n+ doped polysilicon and thefirst electrode is Titanium Nitride. Other materials can also be used.The technologies described below are not restricted to any one set ofmaterials for forming the non-volatile memory elements.

In another embodiment, the memory storage element will include HafniumOxide (or different metal oxide or different material) as the reversibleresistance-switching material, without any electrodes being positionedbetween the reversible resistance-switching material and the conductors(e.g., bit lines and/or word lines).

Another class of materials suitable for the memory storage elements issolid electrolytes but since they are electrically conductive whendeposited, individual memory elements need to be formed and isolatedfrom one another. Solid electrolytes are somewhat similar to the metaloxides, and the conduction mechanism is assumed to be the formation of ametallic filament between the top and bottom electrode. In thisstructure the filament is formed by dissolving ions from one electrode(the oxidizable electrode) into the body of the cell (the solidelectrolyte). In one example, the solid electrolyte contains silver ionsor copper ions, and the oxidizable electrode is preferably a metalintercalated in a transition metal sulfide or selenide material such asA_(x)(MB2)_(1-x), where A is Ag or Cu, B is S or Se, and M is atransition metal such as Ta, V, or Ti, and x ranges from about 0.1 toabout 0.7. Such a composition minimizes oxidizing unwanted material intothe solid electrolyte. One example of such a composition isAg_(x)(TaS2)_(1-x). Alternate composition materials include α-AgI. Theother electrode (the indifferent or neutral electrode) should be a goodelectrical conductor while remaining insoluble in the solid electrolytematerial. Examples include metals and compounds such as W, Ni, Mo, Pt,metal silicides, and the like.

Examples of solid electrolytes materials are: TaO, GeSe or GeS. Othersystems suitable for use as solid electrolyte cells are: Cu/TaO/W,Ag/GeSe/W, Cu/GeSe/W, Cu/GeS/W, and Ag/GeS/W, where the first materialis the oxidizable electrode, the middle material is the solidelectrolyte, and the third material is the indifferent (neutral)electrode. Typical thicknesses of the solid electrolyte are between 30nm and 100 nm.

In recent years, carbon has been extensively studied as a non-volatilememory material. As a non-volatile memory element, carbon is usuallyused in two forms, conductive (or grapheme like-carbon) and insulating(or amorphous carbon). The difference in the two types of carbonmaterial is the content of the carbon chemical bonds, so called sp² andsp³ hybridizations. In the sp³ configuration, the carbon valenceelectrons are kept in strong covalent bonds and as a result the sp³hybridization is non-conductive. Carbon films in which the sp³configuration dominates, are commonly referred to astetrahedral-amorphous carbon, or diamond like. In the sp² configuration,not all the carbon valence electrons are kept in covalent bonds. Theweak tight electrons (phi bonds) contribute to the electrical conductionmaking the mostly sp² configuration a conductive carbon material. Theoperation of the carbon resistive switching nonvolatile memories isbased on the fact that it is possible to transform the sp³ configurationto the sp² configuration by applying appropriate current (or voltage)pulses to the carbon structure. For example, when a very short (1-5 ns)high amplitude voltage pulse is applied across the material, theconductance is greatly reduced as the material sp² changes into an sp³form (“reset” state). It has been theorized that the high localtemperatures generated by this pulse causes disorder in the material andif the pulse is very short, the carbon “quenches” in an amorphous state(sp³ hybridization). On the other hand, when in the reset state,applying a lower voltage for a longer time (˜300 nsec) causes part ofthe material to change into the sp² form (“set” state). The carbonresistance switching non-volatile memory elements have a capacitor likeconfiguration where the top and bottom electrodes are made of hightemperature melting point metals like W, Pd, Pt and TaN.

There has been significant attention recently to the application ofcarbon nanotubes (CNTs) as a non-volatile memory material. A (singlewalled) carbon nanotube is a hollow cylinder of carbon, typically arolled and self-closing sheet one carbon atom thick, with a typicaldiameter of about 1-2 nm and a length hundreds of times greater. Suchnanotubes can demonstrate very high conductivity, and various proposalshave been made regarding compatibility with integrated circuitfabrication. It has been proposed to encapsulate “short” CNT's within aninert binder matrix to form a fabric of CNT's. These can be deposited ona silicon wafer using a spin-on or spray coating, and as applied theCNT's have a random orientation with respect to each other. When anelectric field is applied across this fabric, the CNT's tend to flex oralign themselves such that the conductivity of the fabric is changed. Asin the other carbon based resistive switching non-volatile memories, theCNT based memories have capacitor-like configurations with top andbottom electrodes made of high melting point metals such as thosementioned above.

Yet another class of materials suitable for the memory storage elementsis phase-change materials. A preferred group of phase-change materialsincludes chalcogenide glasses, often of a compositionGe_(x)Sb_(y)Te_(z), where preferably x=2, y=2 and z=5. GeSb has alsobeen found to be useful. Other materials include AgInSbTe, GeTe, GaSb,BaSbTe, InSbTe and various other combinations of these basic elements.Thicknesses are generally in the range of 1 nm to 500 nm. The generallyaccepted explanation for the switching mechanism is that when a highenergy pulse is applied for a very short time to cause a region of thematerial to melt, the material “quenches” in an amorphous state, whichis a low conductive state. When a lower energy pulse is applied for alonger time such that the temperature remains above the crystallizationtemperature but below the melting temperature, the material crystallizesto form poly-crystal phases of high conductivity. These devices areoften fabricated using sub-lithographic pillars, integrated with heaterelectrodes. Often the localized region undergoing the phase change maybe designed to correspond to a transition over a step edge, or a regionwhere the material crosses over a slot etched in a low thermalconductivity material. The contacting electrodes may be any high meltingmetal such as TiN, W, WN and TaN in thicknesses from 1 nm to 500 nm.

It will be noted that the memory materials in most of the foregoingexamples utilize electrodes on either side thereof whose compositionsare specifically selected. In embodiments of the three-dimensionalmemory array herein where the word lines (WL) and/or local bit lines(LBL) also form these electrodes by direct contact with the memorymaterial, those lines are preferably made of the conductive materialsdescribed above. In embodiments using additional conductive segments forat least one of the two memory element electrodes, those segments aretherefore made of the materials described above for the memory elementelectrodes.

Steering elements are commonly incorporated into controllable resistancetypes of memory storage elements. Steering elements can be a transistoror a diode. Although an advantage of the three-dimensional architecturedescribed herein is that such steering elements are not necessary, theremay be specific configurations where it is desirable to include steeringelements. The diode can be a p-n junction (not necessarily of silicon),a metal/insulator/insulator/metal (MIIM), or a Schottky typemetal/semiconductor contact but can alternately be a solid electrolyteelement. A characteristic of this type of diode is that for correctoperation in a memory array, it is necessary to be switched “on” and“off” during each address operation. Until the memory element isaddressed, the diode is in the high resistance state (“off” state) and“shields” the resistive memory element from disturb voltages. To accessa resistive memory element, three different operations are needed: a)convert the diode from high resistance to low resistance, b) program,read, or reset (erase) the memory element by application of appropriatevoltages across or currents through the diode, and c) reset (erase) thediode. In some embodiments one or more of these operations can becombined into the same step. Resetting the diode may be accomplished byapplying a reverse voltage to the memory element including a diode,which causes the diode filament to collapse and the diode to return tothe high resistance state.

For simplicity the above description has consider the simplest case ofstoring one data value within each cell: each cell is either reset orset and holds one bit of data. However, the techniques of the presentapplication are not limited to this simple case. By using various valuesof ON resistance and designing the sense amplifiers to be able todiscriminate between several of such values, each memory element canhold multiple-bits of data in a multiple-level cell (MLC). Theprinciples of such operation are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,172,338referenced earlier. Examples of MLC technology applied to threedimensional arrays of memory elements include an article entitled“Multi-bit Memory Using Programmable Metallization Cell Technology” byKozicki et al., Proceedings of the International Conference onElectronic Devices and Memory, Grenoble, France, Jun. 12-17, 2005, pp.48-53 and “Time Discrete Voltage Sensing and Iterative ProgrammingControl for a 4F2 Multilevel CBRAM” by Schrogmeier et al. (2007Symposium on VLSI Circuits).

One example semiconductor structure for implementing thethree-dimensional memory element array of FIG. 1 is illustrated in FIG.6, which is configured for use of non-volatile memory element (NVM)material that is non-conductive when first deposited. A metal oxide ofthe type discussed above has this characteristic. Since the material isinitially non-conductive, there is no necessity to isolate the memoryelements at the cross-points of the word and bit lines from each other.Several memory elements may be implemented by a single continuous layerof material, which in the case of FIG. 6 are strips of NVM materialoriented vertically along opposite sides of the vertical bit lines inthe y-direction and extending upwards through all the planes. Asignificant advantage of the structure of FIG. 6 is that all word linesand strips of insulation under them in a group of planes may be definedsimultaneously by use of a single mask, thus greatly simplifying themanufacturing process.

Referring to FIG. 6, a small part of four planes 101, 103, 105 and 107of the three-dimensional array are shown. Elements of the FIG. 6 arraythat correspond to those of the equivalent circuit of FIG. 1 areidentified by the same reference numbers. It will be noted that FIG. 6shows the two planes 1 and 2 of FIG. 1 plus two additional planes on topof them. All of the planes have the same horizontal pattern ofconductor, dielectric and NVM material. In each plane, metal word lines(WL) are elongated in the x-direction and spaced apart in they-direction. Each plane includes a layer of insulating dielectric thatisolates its word lines from the word lines of the plane below it or, inthe case of plane 101, of the substrate circuit components below it.Extending through each plane is a collection of metal local bit line(LBL) “pillars” elongated in the vertical z-direction and forming aregular array in the x-y direction.

Each bit line pillar is connected to one of a set of global bit lines(GBL) in the silicon substrate running in the y-direction at the samepitch as the pillar spacing through the select devices (Q_(xy)) formedin the substrate whose gates are driven by the row select lines (SG)elongated in the x-direction, which are also formed in the substrate.The select devices Q_(xy) may be conventional CMOS transistors (orvertical MOSFET thin film transistors, or Junction FET, or npntransistors) and fabricated using the same process as used to form theother conventional circuitry. In the case of using npn transistorsinstead of MOS transistors, the row select line (SG) lines are replacedwith the base contact electrode lines elongated in the x-direction. Alsofabricated in the substrate but not shown in FIG. 6 are senseamplifiers, input-output (I/O) circuitry, control circuitry, and anyother necessary peripheral circuitry. There is one row select line (SG)for each row of local bit line pillars in the x-direction and one selectdevice (Q) for each individual local bit line (LBL).

Each vertical strip of NVM material is sandwiched between the verticallocal bit lines (LBL) and a plurality of word lines (WL) verticallystacked in all the planes. Preferably the NVM material is presentbetween the local bit lines (LBL) in the x-direction. A memory storageelement (M) is located at each intersection of a word line (WL) and alocal bit line (LBL). In the case of a metal oxide described above forthe memory storage element material, a small region of the NVM materialbetween an intersecting local bit line (LBL) and word line (WL) iscontrollably alternated between conductive (set) and non-conductive(reset) states by appropriate voltages applied to the intersectinglines.

In one embodiment, the NVM material includes Hafnium Oxide, the wordlines comprise TiN, and the bit lines comprise N+ silicon.

There may also be a parasitic NVM element formed between the LBL and thedielectric between planes. By choosing the thickness of the dielectricstrips to be large compared to the thickness of the NVM material layer(that is, the spacing between the local bit lines and the word lines), afield caused by differing voltages between word lines in the samevertical word line stack can be made small enough so that the parasiticelement never conducts a significant amount of current. Similarly, inother embodiments, the non-conducting NVM material may be left in placebetween adjacent local bit lines if the operating voltages between theadjacent LBLs remain below the programming threshold.

An outline of a process for fabricating the structure of FIG. 6 is asfollows:

-   -   1. The support circuitry, including the select devices Q, global        bit lines GBL, row select lines SG and other circuits peripheral        to the array, is formed in the silicon substrate in a        conventional fashion and the top surface of this circuitry is        planarized, such as by etching with use of a layer of etch stop        material placed over the circuitry.    -   2. Alternating layers of dielectric (insulator) and metal are        formed as sheets on top of each other and over at least the area        of the substrate in which the select devices Q are formed. In        the example of FIG. 6, four such sheets are formed.    -   3. These sheets are then etched (isolated) by using a mask        formed over the top of them that has slits elongated in the        x-direction and spaced apart in the y-direction. All of the        material is removed down to the etch stop in order to form the        trenches shown in FIG. 6 in which the local bit line (LBL)        pillars and NVM material is later formed. Contact holes are also        etched through the etch stop material layer at the bottom of the        trenches to allow access to the drains of the select devices Q        at the positions of the subsequently formed pillars. The        formation of the trenches also defines the width in the        y-direction of the word lines (WL).    -   4. NVM material is deposited in thin layers along the sidewalls        of these trenches and across the structure above the trenches.        This leaves the NVM material along the opposing sidewalls of        each of the trenches and in contact with the word line (WL)        surfaces that are exposed into the trenches.    -   5. Doped poly silicon (or suitable metallic electrode material)        is then deposited in these trenches in order to make contact        with the NVM material. The deposited material is patterned using        a mask with slits in the y-direction. Removal of the deposited        material by etching through this mask leaves the local bit line        (LBL) pillars. The NVM material in the x-direction may also be        removed between pillars. The space between pillars in the        x-direction is then filled with a dielectric material and        planarized back to the top of the structure.

A significant advantage of the configuration of FIG. 6 is that only oneetching operation through a single mask is required to form the trenchesthrough all the layers of material of the planes at one time. However,process limitations may limit the number of planes that can be etchedtogether in this manner. If the total thickness of all the layers is toogreat, the trench may need to be formed in sequential steps. A firstnumber of layers are etched and, after a second number of layers havebeen formed on top of the first number of trenched layers, the toplayers are subjected to a second etching step to form trenches in themthat are aligned with the trenches in the bottom layers. This sequencemay be repeated even more times for an implementation having a verylarge number of layers.

To enable the memory to be denser (e.g., more memory elements per area),the size of the memory elements can be made smaller and the memoryelements can be arranged closer to each other than in the past. Toenable the memory elements to be closer to each other, one embodimentuses a vertically oriented select device (e.g., three terminal switchand/or select transistor) for connecting the individual local bit linepillars to the respective global bit lines. For example, the selectdevices Q₁₁, Q₁₂, . . . , Q₂₁, Q₂₂, . . . of FIG. 1 can be implementedas vertically oriented select devices. In one embodiment, eachvertically oriented select device is a pillar select device that isformed as a vertical structure, switching between a local bit linepillar and a global bit line. The pillar select devices, unlike previousembodiments where they are formed within a CMOS layer, are in thepresent embodiments formed in a separate layer (pillar select layer)above the CMOS layer/substrate, along the z-direction between the arrayof global bit lines and the array of local bit lines. The CMOS layer isthe substrate where the support circuitry is implemented, including therow select circuit and word line drivers. The use of vertically orientedselect devices above, but not in, the substrate allows the memoryelements to be arranged in a more compact fashion, thereby increasingdensity. Additionally, positioning the vertically oriented selectdevices above the substrate allows for other devices (e.g., the wordline drivers) to be positioned in the substrate under the memory arrayrather than outside of the array, which allows the integrated circuit tobe smaller.

For example, a pillar shaped Thin Film Transistor (TFT) FET or JFET canbe can be used as the select device. In one example implementation, acontrol node of the select transistor has a collar shaped hole, and thegate and channel region are formed in the hole with the source/drainregions formed above/below the channel region. Another alternative is todefine the gates as a rail etch and have the channel deposited in atrench between the gates and singulated by an etch with crossing linesmask (rather than holes).

FIG. 7 illustrates schematically the three dimensional memory (“3Dmemory”) comprising of a memory layer on top of a pillar select layer.The 3D memory 10 is formed on top of a CMOS substrate (not shownexplicitly) where structures in the CMOS are referred to as being in theFEOL (“Front End of Lines”). The vertically oriented select devicesswitching individual vertical bit lines (that are above and not in thesubstrate) to individual global bit lines are now formed on top of theFEOL layer in the BEOL (“Back End of Lines”). Thus, the BEOL comprisesof the pillar select layer with the memory layer on top of it. Thevertically oriented select devices (such as Q₁₁, Q₁₂, . . . , Q₂₁, Q₂₂,. . . , etc) are formed in the pillar select layer as verticallyoriented select devices. The pillar select layer is formed above (andnot in) the substrate. The memory layer is similar to that describedabove, comprising of multiple layers of word lines and memory elements.For simplicity, FIG. 7 shows only one layer of word lines, such as WL₁₀,W₁₁, . . . , etc. without showing the memory elements that exist betweeneach crossing of a word line and a bit line.

FIG. 8A illustrates a schematic circuit diagram of a given verticallyoriented select device switching a local bit line to a global bit line.In the example, the local bit line LBL 440 is switchable to the globalbit line GBL 250 by a vertically oriented select transistor 500 such asQ₁₁. The gate of the select transistor Q₁₁ is controllable by a signalexerted on a row select line SG₁.

FIG. 8B illustrates the structure of the vertically oriented selectdevice in relation to the local bit line and the global bit line. Theglobal bit line such as GBL 250 is formed below the vertically orientedselect device, in the FEOL as part of the metal layer-1 or metal layer-2502. The vertically oriented select device in the form of the verticalactive TFT transistor 500 (e.g., vertically oriented channel MOS TFT orvertically oriented channel JFET) is formed in the BEOL layer on top ofthe GBL 250 (and above, but not in, the substrate). The local bit lineLBL 440, in the form of a pillar, is formed on top of the verticallyoriented select device 500. In this way, the vertically oriented selectdevice 500 can switch the local bit line pillar LBL to the global bitline GBL.

FIG. 9 shows a portion of the memory system, with the memory elementsbeing depicted as resistors (due to their reversible resistanceswitching properties). FIG. 9 shows the Pillar Select Layer below theMemory Layer and above (and not in) the Substrate. Only a portion of theMemory Layer is illustrated. For example, FIG. 9 shows bit lines LBL1,LBL2, . . . LBL72. In this embodiment each of the word lines areconnected to 72 memory elements. Each of the memory elements isconnected between a word line and a bit line. Therefore, there will be72 memory elements connected to the same word line and different bitlines (of the 72 bit lines in a row). Each of the bit lines areconnected to a respective global bit line by one of the verticallyoriented select devices 504 of the Pillar Select Layer. The signal SGxdriving the set of vertically oriented select devices 504 depicted inFIG. 9 is controlled by the Row Select Line Driver. Note that the RowSelect Line Driver is implemented in the substrate. The global bit lines(GBL1, GBL2, . . . GBL72) are implemented in the metal lines above thesubstrate. FIG. 9 shows one slice taken along the word line directionsuch that each of the bit lines depicted in FIG. 9 are connected todifferent global bit lines via the vertically oriented select devices504.

In one embodiment, pairs of neighboring word lines (e.g., WLa and WLb,WLp and WLq, WLr and WLs) will be connected to memory elements that arein turn connected to common bit lines. FIG. 9 shows three pairs of wordlines (WLa and WLb, WLp and WLq, WLr and WLs), with each of the pairbeing on a different layer of the memory structure. In one illustrativeembodiment, the word lines receive address dependent signals such a thatword line WLb is selected for memory operation while word lines WLa,WLp, WLq, WLr and WLs are not selected. Although the enabling signalapplied on row select line SGx causes all of the vertically orientedselect devices 504 to connect the respective global bit lines to therespective local bit lines of FIG. 9, only the global bit line GLBL1includes a data value for programming (as noted by the S). Global bitlines GLBL2 and GLBL72 do not include data for programming (as noted bythe U). This can be due to the data pattern being stored as the globalbit lines receive data dependent signals. Note that while SGx receive anenable signal, other select lines receive a disable signal to turn offthe connected select devices.

Because local bit line LBL 1 and word line WLb are both selected forprogramming, the memory element between local bit line LBL1 and wordline WLb is selected for the memory operation (as noted by the S). Sincelocal bit line LBL1 is the only bit line with program data, the othermemory elements connected to WLb will be half selected (as noted by H).By half selected, it is meant that one of the control lines (either thebit line or the word line) is selected but the other control line is notselected. A half selected memory element will not undergo the memoryoperation. The word line WLa is not selected; therefore, the memory cellbetween WLa and local bit line LBL1 is half selected, and the othermemory elements on WLa are unselected. Since word lines WLp, WLq, WLrand WLs are not selected, their memory elements connected to LBL1 arehalf selected and the other memory elements connected to those wordlines are unselected.

FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view of a memory structure using thevertically oriented select device discussed above and the memorystructure of FIG. 6. As described below, the memory structure of FIG. 10is a continuous mesh array of memory elements because there are memoryelements connected to both sides of the bit lines and memory elementsconnected to both sides of the word lines. At the bottom of FIG. 10, theCMOS substrate is depicted. Implemented on the top surface of the CMOSstructure are various metal lines including ML-0, ML-1, and ML-2. Line526 of ML-2 serves as a respective global bit line (GBL). The PillarSelect Layer includes two oxide layers 520 with a gate material layer522 sandwiched there between. The oxide layers 520 can be SiO₂. Themetal line ML-2 526 serving as a global bit line can be implemented ofany suitable material, including Tungsten, or Tungsten on a TitaniumNitride adhesion layer or a sandwich of n+ polysilicon on Tungsten onTitanium Nitride adhesion layer. Gate material 522 can be polysilicon,Titanium Nitride, Tantalum Nitride, Nickel Silicide or any othersuitable material. Gate material 522 implements the row select linesSG_(x) (e.g. SG₁, SG₂, . . . of FIG. 1), which are labeled in FIG. 10 asrow select lines 580, 582, 584, 586, 588 and 590.

The memory layer includes a set of vertical bit lines 530 (comprising N+polysilicon). Interspersed between the vertical bit lines 530 arealternating oxide layers 534 and word line layers 536. In oneembodiment, the word lines are made from TiN. Between the vertical bitlines 530 and the stacks of alternating oxide layers 536 and word linelayers 536 are vertically oriented layers of reversible resistanceswitching material 532. In one embodiment the reversible resistanceswitching material is made of Hafnium Oxide HfO₂. However, othermaterials (as described above) can also be used. Box 540 depicts oneexample memory element which includes the reversible resistanceswitching material 532 sandwiched between a word line 536 and verticalbit line 530. The memory elements are positioned above, and not in, thesubstrate. Directly below each vertical bit line 530 are the verticallyoriented select devices 504, each of which comprises (in one exampleembodiment) a n+/p−/n+TFT. Each of the vertically oriented selectdevices 504 have oxide layers 505 on each side. FIG. 10 also shows an n+polysilicon layer 524. As can be seen, the npn TFT of verticallyoriented select devices 504 can be used to connect the global bit lineGBL (layer 526) with any of the vertical bit lines 530.

FIG. 10 shows six row select lines (SG_(x)) 580, 582, 584, 586, 588 and590 in the gate material layer 522, each underneath a stack of multipleword lines. As can be seen, each of the row select lines 580, 582, 584,586, 588 and 590 is positioned between two vertically oriented selectdevices 504, above and not in the substrate. Therefore each row selectline can serve as the gate signal to either of the two neighboringvertically oriented select devices 504; therefore, the verticallyoriented select devices 504 are said to be double gated. Each verticallyoriented select device 504 can be controlled by two different row selectlines, in this embodiment. One aspect of the vertically oriented selectdevices incorporated to the base portion of each bit line pillar is thattwo adjacent vertically oriented select devices share the same gateregion. This allows the vertically oriented select devices to be closertogether.

FIG. 11 is a partial schematic of the memory system of FIG. 10 depictingthe above-described double-gated structure for the vertically orientedselect devices 504. Planes 1 and 2 of FIG. 11 are the same as in FIG. 1.As can be seen, each local bit line LBL is connectable to a respectiveglobal bit line GBL by two row select signals. FIG. 11 shows twotransistors connecting to each local bit line. For example, transistorQ₁₁ can connect local bit line LBL₁₁ to global bit line GBL₁ in responseto row select line SG₁ and transistor Q_(11a) can connect local bit lineLBL₁₁ to global bit line GBL₁ in response to row select line SG₂. Thesame structure is used for the other local bit lines depicted in FIG.11.

FIG. 12 shows another partial schematic also depicting the double-gatedstructure such that each local bit line (LBL1, LBL2, . . . LBL72) areconnected to their respective global bit lines (GBL1, GBL2, . . . GBL72)by any of two respective vertically oriented select devices that arepositioned above the CMOS substrate. As can be seen, while thedouble-gated structure of FIG. 10 includes positioning the variousselect devices 504 above the substrate, the Row Select Line Driversproviding the row select lines SG₁, SG₂, . . . are positioned in thesubstrate. Similarly, the global word lines (e.g., GWL) are position ina metal layer on the substrate and below the vertically oriented selectdevices. Furthermore, as will be explained below, in one embodiment theRow Select Line Driver uses the appropriate global word line GWL as aninput.

In prior designs, word line drivers were implemented in the substratebut outside the memory array (rather than underneath the memory array).To make the integrated circuit smaller, it is preferable to implementthe word line drivers underneath the memory array. In some cases, a wordline driver is as big in size as 16 word lines aggregated. Thus, theword line drivers have been too big to fit underneath the memory array.One proposed solution is to connect one word line driver to a group ofmultiple word lines connected together, where a memory system will havemany of such groups. In one example implementation, 16 (or anothernumber of) word lines will be connected together, and the connectedgroup of word lines will be connected to a single word line driver. Inone example, the 16 word lines are connected together to form a combshape. However, other shapes can also be used. Using one word linedriver to drive 16 (or a different number of) word lines in a singlecomb (or other shaped structure) reduces the number of word line driversneed. Therefore, the word line drivers can fit underneath the memoryarray. The use of the vertically oriented select devices described abovealso provides more room underneath the memory array (e.g., in thesubstrate) in order to implement the word line drivers. Additionally,using one or more word line drivers to drive multiple word lines reducesthe number of wires needed from the word line drivers to the word lines,thereby saving room, simplifying routing, reducing power and reducingthe chance of a fault. Additionally, because the word lines and bitlines are now shorter, there is a smaller time constant than in previousdesigns. Because there is a smaller time constant, the lines will settlequicker and there is no significant transient effect that will cause adisturb for unselected memory elements.

FIG. 13 is a partial schematic depicting a portion of a memory systemwhich uses the comb structure described above. For example, FIG. 13shows combs 800, 802, 804 and 806. A memory system is likely to havemany more combs than depicted in FIG. 13; however, FIG. 13 will onlyshow four combs to make it easier to read. Each comb includes 16 wordlines, also referred to as word line fingers. For each comb, a first setsuch as eight (e.g., half) of the word line fingers are on a first sideof the comb and are in a first block while another set such as eight(e.g., half) of the word line fingers are on the second side of the comband are in a second block that is next to the first block. FIG. 13 showsthat combs 800 and 802 (and all of the attached word line fingers) arein a first plane or level of the memory array, and combs 804 and 806(and all of the attached word line fingers) are on a second plane orlevel of the memory array. Each of the combs has a signal line to oneword line driver. For example, word line comb 800 is connected to wordline driver 820. When word line comb 800 is selected, all of the wordline fingers connected to word line comb 800 are selected (e.g., receivethe selected word line signal). Word line comb 802 is connected to wordline driver 822. Word line comb 804 is connected to word line driver824. Word line comb 806 is connected to word line driver 826. Word linedrivers 820, 822, 824 and 826 are implemented underneath the memoryarray in the substrate. In one embodiment, a word line driver is locatedunderneath the block (or one of the blocks) for which it is connectedto.

FIG. 13 shows that word line comb 800 includes word line WL1 which isconnected to memory elements that are in turn connected to local bitlines LB1, LB2, . . . LB72 (72 local bit lines). Word line comb 802includes word line WL2 that is also connected to memory elements for thesame 72 local bit lines LBL1, LBL2, . . . LBL72. In this arrangement,word line comb 800 is on one side of the memory array and word line comb802 is on the opposite side of the memory array such that the word linefingers from comb 800 are interleaved with the word line fingers of wordline comb 802. To make it easier to read, FIG. 13 is created such thatword line combs 800, 804, and their word line fingers appear as dottedlines to show that they are from the right side of the memory arraywhile combs 802, 806 are solid lines to show that they are from the leftside of the memory array. In this arrangement, each memory elementconnected to a word line of word line comb 802 for the block beingdepicted will have a corresponding memory element connected to a wordline for word comb 800 that connects to the same local bit line. Forexample, memory element 810 (connected to WL2) and memory element 812(connected to WL1) are both connected to LBL1. Therefore, the system hasto be operated such that if LBL1 is selected, only appropriate memoryelement 810 or 812 should be selected. Note that the local bit lines areconnected to the appropriate global bit lines by the vertically orientedselect devices 504 (described above) that are above the substrate. Inother embodiments, the word line comb structure can be used withoutusing the vertically oriented select devices. For example, the word linecomb structures can be used with select devices that are implemented inthe substrate.

FIG. 14 is a top view of one layer of the memory array depicting part oftwo word line combs 840 and 842. As described above, each word line combhas word line fingers on two sides of its spine. FIG. 14 only shows theword line fingers on one side of each spine (with stubs being depictedfor the word line fingers on the other side of the spine). For example,word line comb 840 includes word line fingers 840 a, 840 b, 840 c, 840d, 840 e, 840 f, 840 g and 840 h. Word line comb 842 includes word linefingers 842 a, 842 b, 842 c, 842 d, 842 e, 842 f, 842 g and 842 h.Between adjacent word line fingers from word line combs 840 and 842(which are interleaved as describe above), are vertical bit lines 850(note that only a subset of vertical bit lines are labeled withreference number 850 to make the drawing easy to read). At the edge ofthe word line comb, the row of vertical bit lines is shared with anadjacent word line comb. Between each vertical bit line and each wordline finger is a memory element. To make the drawing easy to read,memory elements are only depicted for local bit line 852.

Because two word line comb structures are interleaved and share localbit lines, biasing memory elements connected to one of the word linecombs (and not the other) will have an effect on the other word linecomb. Biasing the vertical bit lines will have an effect on all memoryelement (for any word line comb) connected to those bit lines, eventhough the respective word line combs are not biased. Biasing a wordline comb will bias all 16 (or other number of) word line fingers thatare part of that word line comb. However, it is typically desired toonly program or read from memory elements connected to one word linefinger of the comb.

FIG. 15A is a flow chart describing one embodiment for programmingmemory elements. The process of FIG. 15A can be performed as part of aSET process or as part of a RESET process. In Step 850, all word linesare driven to a common signal of ½ VPP. In general ½ Vpp represents theintermediate unselected word line voltage and is not necessarily exactlyhalf the programming voltage Vpp. Due to IR drops and other particularsof each embodiment the intermediate unselected biases can be adjustedhigher or lower than half the programming voltage and may range from ¼to ¾ of the Vpp. In one embodiment, VPP is the largest voltage used onthe integrated circuit for the memory array. One example of VPP is 4volts; however, other values can also be used. In step 852, the localbit lines are all floated; therefore, they will drift to or near ½VPP.In step 854, ½VPP (e.g., an unselected voltage) is applied to all globalbit lines. In step 856, one or more data dependent signals are appliedto the global bit lines; for example, VPP is applied to only theselected global bit lines. In step 858, the vertically oriented selectdevices discussed above are turned on in order to connect the selectedlocal bit lines to the selected global bit lines. In step 860, selectedlocal bit lines will rise to or toward VPP. In step 862, the selectedword line comb is pulled down to ground. In some embodiments more thanone word line comb can be pulled down to ground. In other embodiments,only one word line comb can be selected at a time.

FIG. 15B is a flow chart describing other embodiments for programmingmemory elements. The process of FIG. 15B is similar to the process ofFIG. 15A, except that the voltage differential experienced by theprogrammed memory elements has a reverse polarity. Therefore, if theprocess of FIG. 15A is used to SET the memory element, then the processof 15B can be can be used to RESET the memory element. Similarly, if theprocess of FIG. 15A is used to RESET the memory element then the processof FIG. 15B can be used to SET the memory element. In step 870 of FIG.15B, all word lines are driven to a common signal of ½VPP. In step 872,all local bit lines are floated and they will therefore drift to at ornear ½VPP. In step 874, ½VPP is applied to the all global bit lines. Instep 876, one or more data dependent signals are applied to the globalbit lines; for example, the selected global bit lines are pulled down toground. In step 878, the vertically oriented select devices are turnedon to connect the selected local bit lines to the selected global bitlines. In step 880, the selected local bit lines are pulled down to ortoward ground in response to being connected to the global bit lines. Atstep 882, VPP is then applied to the selected word line comb (ormultiple word line combs in some embodiments) in order to create theappropriate differential to cause the programming operation to beperformed.

FIG. 16 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a process forreading memory elements. In step 940, all word lines are driven to acommon signal of Vread. In one embodiment Vread is equal to 2 volts;however, other values can also be used. In step 942, the local bit linesare floated; therefore, they will drift to or near Vread. Some floatinglocal bit lines will drift to a voltage just under Vread if they areconnected to a memory element in the low resistance state. In step 944,the global bit lines are charged to one or more signals; for example,the global bit lines are charged to Vread. In step 946, the selectedword line comb (or in some embodiments multiple word line combs) arepulled down to ground. In step 948 the appropriate vertically orientedselect devices are turned on in order to connect the appropriateselected local bit lines to the selected global bit lines. In step 950,current through the selected memory element flows from the selected bitline, from the vertical select device, from the associated global bitline, through a current conveyor clamp device, and ultimately from asense node in the associated sense amplifier. In step 952, the senseamplifier will sense the current and determine the state of the memoryelement.

The above discussion describes how use of the vertically oriented selectdevices and word line combs (or other shapes of connected word lines)allows for a more compact memory system. Another means for reducing thesize of the memory system is to reduce the area needed for row selectline drivers. Looking back at FIG. 1, row select lines are depicted asSG₁, SG₂, SG₃, . . . The drivers for these row select lines areimplemented in the substrate. It is desirable to reduce the area of thesubstrate needed to implement these drivers.

In one embodiment, one row select line driver will drive a row selectline that connects to vertically oriented select devices in 128 blocks.In one embodiment, a set of 128 blocks will have 16 row select linedrivers with one driver for each of the sixteen row select lines for thecomb groups arranged along a horizontal direction in the 128 blocks. Insome example implementations, half of the row select line drivers willbe on one side of the set of the blocks and half of the row select linedrivers will be on the other side of the set of blocks such that theleft and right side drivers will have their respective row select linesinterleaved.

FIG. 17 illustrates one example of a row select line driver 112 drivinga row select line SG_(x) for 128 blocks. One or more row select linedrivers 1112 are shown driving two sets of 64 blocks. On one side of therow select line drivers 112 are a first set of 64 blocks and on theother side of row select line driver 1112 are another set of 64 blocks.The row select line driver is implemented in the substrate while the 64blocks of memory are located above the substrate.

In another embodiment, between groups of 32 blocks, half of thenecessary row select line drivers are positioned. That is, there will beeight drivers between each group of 32 blocks. In yet anotherembodiment, between each group of eight blocks are two of the sixteennecessary row select line drivers. Other arrangements can also be used.

FIG. 18 is a partial schematic depicting a portion of one comb group ina block and some of the support circuitry. FIG. 18 shows bit lines LBL1,LBL2, . . . LBL72, all of which are vertically oriented bit lines asdiscussed above. FIG. 18 also shows four word lines WL1, WL2, WL31 andWL32. In one embodiment, WL1 and WL2 are part of different word linecombs on the same level. Word line WL31 and word line WL32 are also onthe same level and connected to different word line combs. In theembodiment of FIG. 29, there are 16 levels, with two word line combs perlevel, eight word line fingers extending into a block from each wordline comb, and 72 bit lines on each side of a word line. Therefore, inone embodiment, a comb group in a block includes 72×17=1224 bit linesincluding the shared bit lines at the comb edges, 8×2=16 word linefingers per level and a total of 16×16=256 word lines fingers. Each ofthe global word lines GWL are driven by a MOSFET select device 1080 inthe substrate, which is PMOS in some embodiments and NMOS in otherembodiments. Each of the vertically oriented select devices 1070 areconnected to a global bit line (GBL1, GBL2, . . . , GBL72) and anappropriate row select signal. The vertically oriented select devices1070 and the row select lines are implemented above the substrate, asdescribed above. The row select lines span across 128 (or another numberof) blocks and eventually connect to row select line drivers in (and/oron the substrate). In one embodiment, the global word line connects tothe gate of word line drivers 1080, which connect the word line to SELXsource inputs to drive the various word line combs to either a selectedor unselected voltage. The word line driver 1080 and SELX signal linescarry significant current when the word line is selected and arenon-minimum devices and metal lines respectively.

In the embodiment of FIG. 18, it is assumed that one word line comb isselected and none of the other three word line combs are selected.Additionally, it is assumed that GBL1 is selected for programming whileGBL2 and . . . GBL72 do not have data for programming. Therefore, thememory element between WL32 and LBL1 is selected for programming. Theother memory elements between WL32 and the other bit lines are halfselected (H). The memory element between WL31 and LBL1 is half selected(H). The other memory elements connected to WL31 being unselected (U).For WL1, WL2, and the first word line of each word line comb for theother 14 levels, the memory element connected to LBL1 is half selected(H) and all the other memory elements are unselected. In light of theabove, none of the memory elements that are not selected will bedisturbed. As can be seen from FIG. 29, each bit line connects to twoword line combs on each of the sixteen levels. Therefore, the fan out ofeach bit line is 32 memory elements (16 levels x 2 memory elements perlevel). Additional memory elements associated with adjacent rows ofvertical bit lines are not shown to make the drawing clearer. Some ofthose additional memory elements connect to WL1, WL2, or WL31 and areunselected. Other of those additional memory elements connect to WL32and are half selected. Operation of the system includes driving signalson word lines and global bit lines, using row select line drivers toapply signals on a plurality of row select lines, activating a pluralityof select devices based on the signals applied to the row select lines(with each block of memory elements connected to a different subset ofthe select devices and each row select line connects to a subset of theselect devices for multiple blocks), and communicating signals from theglobal bit lines to vertically oriented bit lines above and not in thesubstrate using the select devices.

Each word line finger interacts (via memory elements) to 72 local bitlines on one side of the word line finger and 72 bit lines on the otherside of the word line. Therefore, there are 144 memory elementsconnected to each word line finger. Since there are 8 word line fingersconnected to each word line comb, the fan out of a word line comb is1152 memory elements (8 fingers×144 memory elements per finger).Therefore the fan out of a bit line is significantly less than the fanout of a word line comb. Additionally, the fan out of a bit line is lessthan the fan out of a word line finger. The fan out of a row select linedriver is 9216 (128 blocks×72 local bit lines per block). Therefore, thefan out of a bit line, the fan out of a word line finger, and the fanout of a word line comb are all individually less than the fan out ofthe row select line driver. The global bit line spans across all 4096comb groups of a block; therefore, the fan out of a global bit line is65,536 (4096 blocks×16 rows of bit lines). The fan out of a global wordline is 65,536. Therefore, the fan out of the global word line and thefan out of the global bit line are both bigger than the fan out of a bitline, the fan out of a word line, the fan out of a word line comb andthe fan out of a row select line driver.

The fan out of the various lines driving the memory core is devised tobalance the area of these drivers which dominate the support circuitarea of the chip and thereby produce the most efficient memory chip. Lowfan out lines have the most number of drivers. High fan out lines havethe least number of drivers while serving the same number of memoryelements. The optimum chip would associate the most compact drivingcircuit with the lowest fan out line because it has the largest numberof drivers. Vice versa, an optimum chip would associate the most areaconsuming circuit with the highest fan out line. In the above embodimentof the memory chip, the optimum chip efficiency is achieved by theassociation of drivers and fan outs for bit lines, word lines, rowselect gate driver, global word line and global bit line. The bit lineis driven by the most compact driver, it being a single verticallyoriented thin film transistor and is given the smallest fan out, whichimplies the largest number of devices. The word line is driven by asingle device driver which is next in the rank of driver area. The rowselect driver, as described below, is a three device driver and third indriver area rank. And finally the global bit and global word linedriving circuitry involves more complicated decoding circuitry and areof approximately equal complexity. The increasing rank of drivingcircuitry complexity is aligned with the increasing fan out of thedriven line to achieve the optimum efficiency of the memory system.

FIG. 19A depicts a partial schematic that includes one exampleembodiment of a row select line driver that can be used with thevertical bit line architecture described above (including the verticallyoriented select devices, word line combs, and extended row select linesdescribed above). The row select line driver of FIG. 19A includes threemetal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET). Forexample, one row select line driver includes nMOS transistor 1102, pMOStransistor 1104 and nMOS transistor 1106. The source input of nMOStransistor 1102 and the source input of pMOS transistor 1104 areconnected to the Global Word Line (GWL). The drain of nMOS transistor1102 and the drain of pMOS transistor 1104 are connected to the rowselect line (SG₀). The drain of nMOS transistor 1106 is also connectedto the row select line SG₀. The source of nMOS transistor 1106 isconnected to ground. The gate of nMOS transistor 1102 is connected to aselection line Row0. The gate of nMOS transistor 1106 and pMOStransistor 1104 are both connected to selection line Row0Bar.

FIG. 19A also shows a second row select line driver comprising pMOStransistor 1110, and nMOS transistor 1112 and nMOS transistor 1114. Thesources of pMOS transistor 1110 and nMOS transistor 1112 are connectedto the Global Word Line GWL. The drains of pMOS transistor 1110 and nMOStransistor 1112 are connected to row select line SGn. The gate of pMOStransistor 1110 is connected to the selection line RowNBar. The gate ofnMOS transistor 1112 is connected to selection line RowN. The drain ofnMOS transistor 1114 is connected to row select line SGn and the sourceof nMOS transistor 1114 is connected to ground. The gate of nMOStransistor 1114 is connected to RowNBar. Between the row select linedriver comprising transistors 1110, 1112, and 1114 and the row selectline driver comprising transistors 1102, 1104 and 1106, is a ground lineto provide ground to nearby electric components. On the other side ofthe row select line driver comprising transistors 1102, 1104 and 1106,is a power line supplying VDD to nearby components.

In parentheses are voltage values applied to the various lines of FIG.19A to explain one example of operation of the row select line driversdepicted therein. In this example, three volts is applied to the GlobalWord Line, RowNBar and Row0. Ground is provided to RowN and Row0Bar. Insuch a configuration, Row0 is selected and RowN is not selected. Thatis, the row select line driver for Row0 (comprising transistors 1102,1104 and 1106) is turned on and the row select line driver for RowN(comprising transistor 1110, 1112 and 1114) is turned off. Therefore, aselection signal of three volts will be driven on the row select linefor Row0 (SG₀) and ground will be provided on the row select line forRowN (SG_(n)). As transistor 1102 receives three volts at its gate andtransistor 1104 receives ground at its gate, both transistors turn onand current will flow from the Global Word Line to SG₀ through pMOStransistor 1104. SG₀ will be driven to 3 volts. Therefore, all of thevertically oriented select devices connected to SG₀ will be turned on,thereby connecting respective global bit lines to respective verticallocal bit lines (selectively putting the respective vertical local bitlines in communication with with respective global bit lines). Since thegate of pMOS transistor 1110 receives three volts and the gate of nMOStransistor 1112 receives ground, both transistors will remain off. Sincethe gate of transistor 1114 receives three volts, it will turn on andpull the row select line SG_(n) to ground. Those vertically orientedselect devices receiving SG_(n) will not turn on and the respectivevertical local bit lines will not be connected their respective globalbit lines.

FIG. 19B shows the same circuit as FIG. 19A, but with different biases.The Global Word Line now receives ground indicating that it isunselected. The signal lines RowN and Row0Bar are at ground. The signallines Row0 and RowNBar receive three volts. So, the difference betweenFIG. 19A and FIG. 19B is that in FIG. 19A the Global Word Line isselected (receives three volts) and in FIG. 19B the Global Word Line isunselected (at ground). As the gate of nMOS transistor 1102 is at threevolts and the gate of pMOS 1104 is at ground, both transistors areturned on. In this case, the Global Word Line (at ground) will pull downthe row select line SG₀ to ground through nMOS transistor 1102. As thegate of nMOS transistor 1106 receives ground, that transistor is off.Since the pMOS transistor 1110 receives three volts and the gate of nMOStransistor 1112 receives a ground potential, both transistors remainoff. Since nMOS transistor 1114 receives three volts at its gate, thattransistor is turned on and the row select line SGn is pulled down toground via nMOS transistor 1114. In the example of 19B, both row selectlines depicted are at ground so that the vertically oriented selectdevices will not connect their respective vertical bit lines to therespective global bit lines.

Each global word line connects to one word line comb group in a block.SELX signals described above are connected to associated word line combsby the word line driver devices which are turned on by the global wordline at 3 volts. A selected SELX bias is passed to the selected wordline comb. Therefore, by driving three volts on a particular global wordline, one word line comb will be selected for the memory operation andthe appropriate sixteen (or a different number) of row select linedrivers will also be enabled. The selection signals Row0, Row0Bar, Row1,Ro1Bar, . . . RowN, RowNBar are used to select between the sixteen rowselect line drivers associated with the particular global word line. Asdiscussed above, in one embodiment, each row select line driver willdrive a row select line (SGx) that connects to 128 blocks (or adifferent number of blocks, depending on the particular implementation).

FIGS. 19A and 19B show the three transistors (components) forming a rowselect line driver to be adjacent to each other. In other embodiments,the three transistors are distributed throughout the memory array. Forexample, the transistors can be underneath different blocks or betweendifferent blocks (which still qualifies as being under the memory arraysince the drivers are located within the edges/borders of the array). Inone example embodiment, the area between blocks is referred to as theword line break because one or more word lines (e.g., half of the wordlines for a block) will end at the edge of a block. Thus, there is abreak (at least a partial break) in the word lines between blocks. Theword line break can also be thought of as a gap between blocks. In oneembodiment, one transistor (of a row select line driver) will bepositioned in a word line break. That is, in the gap between adjacentblocks there will be transistor that will form part of a row select linedriver. Therefore, the three transistors for a word line driver will bein three different word line breaks. FIGS. 31A and B depict one exampleof selectively connecting the global bit lines to the verticallyoriented bit lines using vertically oriented select devices controlledby row select lines, where the selectively connecting includes drivingthe row select lines using row select line drivers and using aparticular row select line driver includes controlling components thatare distributed in different gaps between the blocks.

In one embodiment, in order to turn on one of the vertically orientedselect devices to select a vertical bit line, two of the row selectlines need to be turned on. In one implementation, for a particularvertically oriented select device to be turned on, both of the rowselect lines connected to the double gated structure of the verticallyoriented select device are turned on. That is the row select linesconnected to the two gate interfaces for the select device are carryingan “on” signal.

In one embodiment, the vertically oriented select devices are modifiedso that two gates are required to provide a sufficient voltage in orderto turn on the vertically oriented select device. For example, thedoping of the channel of the vertically oriented select device isincreased. Therefore, an “on” voltage from both row select linesconnected to the dual gate structure is required in order for thethreshold voltage of the transistor to be met and current to flow in thechannel.

In some implementations, there could be a problem with multiple memoryelements being selected based on a single vertically oriented selectdevice turning on. That is, with the word line comb arrangement, theentire word line comb is selected. Therefore every other word line alonga slice will be selected. In one proposed solution, the verticallyoriented select devices are fabricated as asymmetrical devices, eachhaving two gate interfaces. Each asymmetrical vertically oriented selectdevice has one of the row select lines connected to a first gateinterface for the respective asymmetrical vertically oriented selectdevice and another of the select lines connected to a second gateinterface for the respective asymmetrical vertically oriented selectdevice. In some embodiments, the asymmetrical aspect of the selectdevices is a difference in threshold voltage that is produced by dopinglevel differences (e.g., asymmetrical doped) in the channel (e.g.,asymmetrical channel), gate oxide thickness differences (asymmetricalgate oxides such that the left gate oxide has a different thickness thanthe right gate oxide), a gate material work function difference or acombination of these methods. In one embodiment, the TFT channelreceives an angled implant so that the left side of the channel (at afirst gate interface) has a lower threshold voltage than the right sideof the channel (at a second gate interface). An angled n type channelimplant after oxide deposition produces a lower threshold for thechannel on the left side of the vertical TFT device as compared to theright side of the TFT. Thus, the left side of the select device(including the left gate interface) will act like a depletion modetransistor and the right side of the select device (including the rightgate interface) will act like an enhancement mode transistor. In otherwords, for the double gated switch, the left gate will be a depletionmode transistor and the right gate will be an enhancement modetransistor. In other embodiments the channel implantation is combinedwith implantation into the gate material to produce a gate oxidethickness difference and a work function difference of the gatematerial. The gate material could be doped polysilicon. An high level ptype angled implantation before gate oxide growth into the polysilicongate material on the right side of the TFT raises the work function ofthe gate material, raises the threshold of the associated channel, andincreases the gate oxide thickness. Diffusion of p type dopant throughthe gate oxide during a high temperature anneal of the TFT in someembodiments increases the p doping in the channel and further raises theenhancement side threshold. In the above described embodiments, theasymmetrical nature of the channel of the select device is asymmetricalwith respect to the direction in the channel from the first/left gateinterface to the second/right gate interface.

FIG. 20 is a cross section of a structure of a memory providing anotherembodiment that allows for operation of the memory system and properselection of memory elements where the word line comb structure (orother type of shape) is implemented. In the embodiment of FIG. 20 (whichmay include word line comb structures or other shapes), the verticallyoriented select devices are symmetrical. Thus the oxide layers on eachside are symmetrical. However, the embodiment of FIG. 20 includes twolayers of vertically oriented select devices and two layers of rowselect lines. FIG. 20 shows a first layer of vertically oriented selectdevices including 1600 b, 1602 b, 1604 b, 1606 b and 1608 b. A top andsecond layer of vertically oriented select devices includes 1600 t, 1602t, 1604 t, 1606 t and 1608 t. The bottom layer of row select linesincludes 580 b, 582 b, 584 b, 586 b, 588 b, and 590 b. The top layer ofrow select lines includes 580 t, 582 t, 584 t, 586 t, 588 t, and 590 t.

Row select line 580 t is formed on top of 580 b. Row select line 582 tis formed on top of row select line 580 b. Row select line 584 t isformed on top of row select line 584 b. Row select line 586 t is formedon top of row select line 586 b. Row select line 588 t is formed on topof row select line 588 b. Row select line 590 t is formed on top of rowselect line 590 b.

Vertically oriented select device 1600 t is formed on top of, connectedto and in series with vertically oriented select device 1600 b.Vertically oriented select device 1602 t is formed on top of, connectedto, and in series with vertically oriented select device 1602 b.Vertically oriented select device 1604 t is formed on top of, connectedto and in series with vertically oriented select device 1604 b.Vertically oriented select device 1606 t is formed on top of, connectedto, and in series with vertically oriented select device 1606 b.Vertically oriented select device 1608 t is formed on top of, connectedto, and in series with vertically oriented select device 1608 b.

In the embodiment of FIG. 20, in order for global bit line 1360 to be incommunication with one of the local bit lines (1370, 1372, 1374, 1376 or1378), both of the vertically oriented select devices underneath theappropriate local bit lines must be turned on. To turn on both switches(a top switch and a bottom switch), then a top row select line and abottom row select line must be turned on. FIG. 20 shows row select line584 t as being selected (“+”) by driving three volts and row select line582 b as being selected (“+”) and driving three volts. Therefore,vertically oriented select device 1602 t and vertically oriented selectdevice 1602 b will both turn on. Because row select line 584 t isselected, vertically oriented select device 604 t will also turn on.Because vertically oriented select device 604 b is off, local bit line1374 will not be selected and will not be in communication with globalbit line 1360. Because row select line 582 b is selected, verticallyoriented select device 1600 b will also turn on. Since verticallyoriented select device 1600 t is not turned on, local bit line 1370 willnot be connected to or in communication with global bit line 1360. Inthis manner, only local bit line 1372 is selected. Memory element 1620will undergo a memory operation. Therefore, in the structure of FIG. 20,a local bit line is selected by choosing a top row select line and abottom row select line on opposite sides of the stack of two verticallyoriented select devices. Each of the selected/activated row select linesare also connected to select devices adjacent to the intended targetselect device, for example, row select line 584 t is also connected toselect device 1604 t which is adjacent to select device 1602 t.

FIG. 21 is a block diagram showing the two rows of row select lines andvertically oriented select devices from FIG. 20. In one embodiment, thestructure of FIG. 20 will include double the amount of row select linesin the memory system. This may add a lot more signal lines whichoccupies valuable space. One proposal is to connect two row select lineswithin the block of memory elements. In one embodiment, diagonal rowselect lines will be connected (e.g., wired) together. For example, FIG.21 shows row select line 582 b being wired to row select line 584 t.FIG. 21 also shows row select line 580 b being wired to row select line582 t, row select line 584 b being wired to row select line 586 t, rowselect line 586 b being wired to row select line 588 t, and row selectline 588 b being wired to row select line 590 t. Other arrangements forwiring the two row select lines together can also be used.

Looking back at FIG. 10, memory element 540 is identified using a dashedbox. FIG. 22 depicts a close-up cross sectional view of memory element540, including a portion of the material comprising the bit line 530,reversible resistance switching material 532 and a portion of thematerial comprising the word line 536. The portion of the materialcomprising the bit line 530 and the portion of the material comprisingthe word line 536 act as electrodes for memory element 540. In oneembodiment, reversible resistance switching material 532 comprises ametal oxide material. As described above, other types of materials canalso be used. Table 1 provides some examples (but not an exhaustivelist) of materials that can be used for the memory elements.

TABLE 1 Electrode Reversible Resistance Electrode (Bit Line side)Switching Material (Word Line side) 20 nm n+ Si 3 nm (or less) AlOx 5-10nm TiN 10 nm n+ Si 3 nm AlOx 5-10 nm TiN 20 nm n+ Si 3 nm AlOx 5-10 nmTiN 20 nm n+ Si 2 nm AlOx 5-10 nm TiN 20 nm n+ Si 2 nm HfOx 5-10 nm n+Si 20 nm n+ Si 3 nm HSiON 5-10 nm TiN  8 nm n+ Si 3 nm HSiON 5-10 nm TiN20 nm n+ Si 3 nm TaOx 5-10 nm TiN 20 nm n+ Si 3 nm ZrOx 5-10 nm TiN 20nm n+ Si 3 nm HfOx 5-10 nm TiN

In one set of example implementations, (1) 20 nm n+ Si, 3 nm HfOx, 5-10nm TiN; and (2) 20 nm n+ Si, 2 nm AlOx, 5-10 nm TiN are preferred setsof materials. Thin switching materials layers are less robust to thecurrent surges and high fields needed to form the switching material.Nevertheless, the switching material thickness in many embodiments ofthis invention are reduced below 5 nm and preferably below 3 nm when incombination with a cathode electrode material with a low electroninjection energy barrier to the switching material. Material choices areenvisioned where the thickness of the switching material is reduced fromtypical values to be less than 3 nm and the cathode electrode materialfor forming has an energy barrier less than 1 eV to the switchingmaterial. Without being bound by any particular theory, the beneficialeffect can be significant because both the material thickness reductionand the electron injection energy barrier reduction reduce the energyreleased in the forming event by electrons being injected into theswitching material. Higher endurance and retention memory element areachieved.

Other buffer and barrier layers as required for processing and cellreliability can be added in some embodiments. For example, there may bea nm scale Titanium Oxide layer above or below the TiN layers. Thesebuffer and barrier layers may be off ideal stoichoimetry.

The thicknesses are examples but various embodiments may be higher orlower. Highly defected metal oxide such as HfSiON, AlON, or AL dopedHfOx are desirable in some embodiments for lower voltage operation andhighest data retention memory cells.

Even with the same structure, the process condition such as annealingtemperature and time can make a difference. In the example of 20 nmn+Si/3 nm HfO2/10 nm n+Si, the annealing condition after HfOx depositionshould be at lower temperature and longer time (e.g., ˜540 C for 1hour). The device after this annealing behaves differently than previousstandard 750C 60s RTA.

As described above, memory element 540 may be reversibly switchedbetween two or more states. For example, the reversible resistancematerial 532 may be in an initial high resistance state upon fabricationthat is switchable to a low resistance state upon application of a firstvoltage and/or current. Application of a second voltage and/or currentmay return the reversible resistivity-switching material to a highresistance state. FIG. 23 is a graph of voltage versus current for oneexample embodiment of a metal oxide reversible resistance-switchingmemory element. Line 1720 represents the I-V characteristics of thereversible resistance-switching memory element when in the highresistance state (ROFF). Line 1722 represents the I-V characteristics ofthe reversible resistance-switching memory element when in the lowresistance state (RON). Line 1721 represents the I-V characteristics ofa fresh reversible resistance-switching memory element before forming.

To determine which state the reversible resistance-switching memoryelement is in, a voltage is applied and the resulting current ismeasured. A higher measured current indicates that the reversibleresistance-switching memory element is in the low resistance state. Alower measured current indicates that the memory element is in the highresistance state. Note that other variations of a memory element havingdifferent I-V characteristics can also be used with the technologyherein. In bipolar switching mode of operation suitable for manymaterials, the values of Vset and Vreset are opposite in polarity.

Before forming, a reversible resistance-switching memory element isconsidered fresh. If the forming voltage Vf and sufficient current isapplied to a fresh reversible resistance-switching memory element, thememory element will be formed and will go into a low resistancecondition (which, in some embodiments coincides with the low resistancestate). Line 1723 shows the behavior when Vf is applied. The voltagewill remain somewhat constant and the current will increase. At somepoint, the reversible resistance-switching memory element will be in thelow resistance condition/state and the device behavior will be based online 1722 or something like line 1722.

While in the high low resistance state (see line 1720), if the voltageVset and sufficient current is applied, the memory element will be SETto the low resistance state. Line 1724 shows the behavior when Vset isapplied. The voltage will remain somewhat constant and the current willincrease. At some point, the reversible resistance-switching memoryelement will be SET to the low resistance state and the device behaviorwill be based on line 1722.

While in the low resistance state (see line 1722), if the voltage Vresetand sufficient current is applied, the memory element will be RESET tothe high resistance state. Line 1726 shows the behavior when Vreset isapplied. At some point, the memory element will be RESET and the devicebehavior will be based on line 1720. Note that in one embodiment, themagnitude of the forming voltage Vf may be greater than the magnitude ofVset, and the magnitude of Vset may be greater than the magnitude ofVreset.

In one embodiment, Vset is approximately 3.5 volts, Vreset isapproximately −2 volts, Iset_limit is approximately 5 uA and the Iresetcurrent could be as high as 30 uA.

Looking back at FIG. 22, the thickness of the reversible resistancematerial 532 is chosen so that the fresh memory element (before aFORMING process) is in range of 10 to 1000 times more resistive thandesired high resistance state (after a RESET operation). In oneembodiment, the thickness range is 3 nm or less; however, other rangescan also be used.

The materials of the memory element 540 (portion of the materialcomprising the bit line 530, reversible resistance switching material532 and portion of the material comprising the word line 536) each havea work function (based on the conduction bands of a semi-conductingmaterial or an electron affinity if a metallic material). When designinga memory element, the reversible resistance switching material 532 andthe cathode are chosen so that electron injection energy barrier is lessthan 1 eV by matching work function of the electrode and electronaffinity of the reversible resistance switching material 532, byreducing effective work function of the electrode, or by both effects.

In one embodiment, when creating the electrode (e.g., creating thevertical bit line), the silicon material is annealed. The annealingconditions are chosen to reduce trap depth of the reversible resistanceswitching material 532 to less than 1.0 eV. This is applicable if MeOxbulk conduction is dominated. Proper annealing conditions may alsoreduce the effective work function. Additionally (and optionally),cathode deposition conditions can be chosen to produce an interfacelayer between the cathode (e.g. bit line) and the reversible resistanceswitching material 532 which reduces effective work function of thecathode. Sputtering (e.g., Argon sputtering) can be used to reduce thework function of the electrode.

In some embodiments, the bit line can serve as the cathode and the wordline as the anode, while in other embodiments the bit line can serve asthe anode and the word line can serve as the cathode.

In one example implementation, the polarity of the FORMING voltage Vf ischosen so that the electrode with the lowest electrode to reversibleresistance switching material barrier is chosen as the cathode. That is,the bit line to the reversible resistance switching material has a firstelectron injection energy barrier and the word line to the reversibleresistance switching material has a second electron injection energybarrier. If the first electron injection energy barrier is less than thesecond electron injection energy barrier, then the bit line will be usedas the cathode and the word line will be used as the anode. To achievethis, a positive forming voltage Vf is applied to the word line andground is applied to the bit line. Alternatively, a higher positivevoltage is applied to the word line, as compared to the bit line, suchthe difference in potential between the word line and the bit line isthe forming voltage Vf. The bit line would be at a lower positivevoltage potential than the word line. When the bit line serves as thecathode, the direction of the electric field is from the word line tothe bit line (see arrow 1700 of FIG. 22) and the direction of electroninjection into the reversible resistance switching material 532 is fromthe bit line to the word line (see arrow 1702 of FIG. 22). The cathodeserves to emit electrons.

If the second electron injection energy barrier is less than the firstelectron injection energy barrier, then the word line will be used asthe cathode and the bit line will be used as the anode. To achieve this,the positive forming voltage Vf is applied to the bit line and ground isapplied to the word line. Alternatively, a higher positive voltage isapplied to the bit line, as compared to the word line, such thedifference in potential between the bit line and the word line is theforming voltage Vf. The word line would be at a lower voltage potentialthan the bit line.

FIG. 24 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a process forFORMING.

In step 1802, the forming voltage Vf is applied as a pulse to the memoryelement via the appropriate word line and bit line. The polarity of thevoltage is such that the electrode with the lower electron injectionenergy barrier is the cathode, as described above. In one example, thepulse is at 4.7 volts for approximately 2 micro seconds. In step 1804, aread voltage is applied to the memory element. In step 1806, the currentthrough the memory element (and through the bit line) in response to theread voltage is sensed. If the current sensed in step 1806 is a lowercurrent, indicating that the memory element is still in a highresistance condition (see step 1808), then the process loops back tostep 1802 and another pulse is applied. If the current sensed in step1806 is a higher current, indicating that the memory element is in thelow resistance state (see step 1808), then FORMING is complete (step1810). After FORMING is compete, the memory element can be operated byperforming cycles of RESETs and SETS, as well as read processes.

In one embodiment, the system will use an on-chip resistor (orequivalent) serially connected with the memory element, with aresistance in range 100 K ohm to 500 K ohm, during FORMING to limit themaximum current across the reversible resistance switching material and,therefore, produce a formed state (low resistance) in 100M ohm to 10 Gohm. One option for an effective resistance serially connected to thememory element is to use an on-chip transistor connected with the memoryat its drain to control maximum current in the range of 10 nA to 1 uAduring FORMING to produce the formed low resistance state in 100M ohm to10 G ohm. For example, the vertically oriented select devices (Qxx ofFIG. 1, 500 in FIGS. 8A/B, 504 in FIGS. 9/10, 1602 t/1602 b of FIG. 21,. . . ) can be used to limit the current in/through the vertical bitlines during the FORMING process. As described above, the select devicesare transistors, such as thin film transistors (as well as other typesof transistors). These transistors have threshold voltages such thatwhen a high enough voltage is applied to the gate, the transistors turnon. An “ON” voltage is defined as the gate voltage used to sufficientlyturn on the transistor such that the transistor allows the maximumcurrent to flow in its channel without breaking the transistor. An “OFF”voltage is defined as the gate voltage for which no current (or asufficiently small amount of current to effectively be considered nocurrent) flows in the channel of the transistor. An “INTERMEDIATE”voltage is defined as a gate voltage greater than the OFF voltage andless than the ON voltage such that a limited current flows in thechannel of the transistors. For example, the “INTERMEDIATE” voltage mayonly allow 50% (or 30%, 60% or other fraction) of the maximum current toflow in the channel of the transistor/switch. Since the channel of thetransistor is in series with the vertical bit line, limiting the currentin the channel of the transistor comprising the select device will limitthe current through the connected bit line. In one embodiment, the bitline current during forming is limited to a range of 10 nano amps to 1micro amp.

In one example, the SET voltage Vset is the same polarity as the FORMINGvoltage Vf, and the RESET voltage Vreset is the opposite polarity as theFORMING voltage Vf. FIGS. 15A and 15B describe the SET and RESETprocesses. In one example, the bit line electron injection energybarrier is lower than the word line electron injection energy barrier,such that the bit line serves as the cathode; therefore, the FORMINGvoltage is applied with a positive (or higher) potential at the wordline, the process of FIG. 15B is used to SET and the process of FIG. 15Ais used to RESET.

In another example, the word line electron injection energy barrier islower than the bit line electron injection energy barrier, such that theword line serves as the cathode; therefore, the FORMING voltage isapplied with a positive (or higher) potential at the bit line, theprocess of FIG. 15A is used to SET and the process of FIG. 15B is usedto RESET.

A memory cell with thinner MeOx layer and lower effective electroninjection energy barrier is formed in the direction of polarity withlower electron injection energy barrier. Therefore, it reduces formingvoltage and surge current. A current limit, such as the select devicedescribed above, can further protect the memory element to operate inthe high resistance state (1M ohm to 1000M ohm) in both SET and RESEToperation. This ensures that memory element takes most of the voltageapplied. Therefore, a lower voltage is required from the power source,resulting in less operational current. In this way, the operationalvoltage and current are reduced.

One embodiment of a non-volatile storage system comprises: a substrate;a monolithic three dimensional array of non-volatile storage elementspositioned above and not in the substrate, the non-volatile storageelements include reversible resistance switching material; word linesconnected to the non-volatile storage elements; and bit lines connectedto the non-volatile storage elements. The non-volatile storage elementscan be set to a low resistance state during operation by biasing theword lines and bit lines to apply a set voltage to the non-volatilestorage elements. The non-volatile storage elements can be reset to ahigh resistance state during operation by biasing the word lines and bitlines to apply a reset voltage to the non-volatile storage elements.Prior to operation the non-volatile storage elements undergo a formingprocess. During the forming process the word lines and bit lines arebiased to apply a forming voltage to the non-volatile storage elementswith a polarity such that a higher voltage is applied to anodes and alower voltage to cathodes for the non-volatile storage elements. Thecathodes have a lower electron injection energy barrier to thereversible resistance switching material than the anodes.

One embodiment of a non-volatile storage system comprises: a substrate;a monolithic three dimensional array of memory elements positioned aboveand not in the substrate, the memory elements include switchingmaterial; word lines connected to the memory elements; a plurality ofword line drivers in the substrate and in communication with the wordlines; a plurality of bit line drivers in the substrate; a plurality ofglobal bit lines in communication with the bit line drivers; a pluralityof vertically oriented bit lines that are above and not in thesubstrate, the vertically oriented bit lines include silicon that hasbeen annealed; a plurality of vertically oriented select devices thatare above and not in the substrate, the vertically oriented selectdevices are connected to the vertically oriented bit lines and theglobal bit lines; and a plurality of select lines connected to thevertically oriented select devices. The memory elements can be set to alow resistance state and reset to a high resistance state duringoperation by biasing appropriate voltages on the word lines andvertically oriented bit lines. Prior to operation the memory elementsundergo a forming process. During the forming process an intermediatevoltage is driven on the select lines so that the vertically orientedselect devices are partially on and are limiting the current through thebit lines. A forming voltage is applied to the memory elements duringforming with a polarity such that a particular bit line acts as acathode and the appropriate word line acts as an anode with the cathodehaving a lower electron injection energy barrier to the switchingmaterial than the anode. The bit line has a lower electron injectionenergy barrier than the word line.

One embodiment a method of operating a non-volatile storage elementcomprises: apply a forming voltage to a non-volatile storage elementwith a polarity of voltage such that an electrode with a lower electroninjection energy barrier acts as a cathode and an electrode with ahigher electron injection energy barrier acts as an anode, and limitingcurrent through the non-volatile storage element to be lower thanmaximum current for the non-volatile storage element while applying theforming voltage; perform a sensing operation; and determining ifnon-volatile storage element is in low resistance condition based on thesensing operation.

The foregoing detailed description has been presented for purposes ofillustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive orlimiting to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications andvariations are possible in light of the above teaching. The describedembodiments were chosen in order to best explain the principles of thedisclosed technology and its practical application, to thereby enableothers skilled in the art to best utilize the technology in variousembodiments and with various modifications as are suited to theparticular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope be defined bythe claims appended hereto.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of operating a non-volatile storageelement, comprising: applying a forming voltage to a non-volatilestorage element with a polarity of voltage such that an electrode with alower electron injection energy barrier acts as a cathode and anelectrode with a higher electron injection energy barrier acts as ananode, and limiting current through the non-volatile storage element tobe lower than maximum current for the non-volatile storage element whileapplying the forming voltage, the non-volatile storage element isconnected to a bit line, the bit line is connected to a verticallyoriented select device, the vertically oriented select device isconnected to a global bit line and a select line, the applying theforming voltage includes applying an intermediate voltage to the selectline so that the vertically oriented select device is partially on andis limiting the current through the bit line, the intermediate voltageis less than a selected voltage during SET and RESET operations and morethan an unselected voltage during SET and RESET operations; performing asensing operation; and determining if the non-volatile storage elementis in low resistance condition based on the sensing operation.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising: repeating the applying of theforming voltage if, and in response to, determining that thenon-volatile storage element is not in the low resistance condition. 3.The method of claim 1, further comprising: performing RESET operations,SET operations, and read operations after performing a forming processcomprising the application of the forming voltage.
 4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein: the electrode with the lower electron injection energybarrier is the vertically oriented bit line and the electrode with thehigher electron injection energy barrier is a word line; and theapplying the forming voltage includes applying selected voltages to thevertically oriented bit line and the word line.
 5. The method of claim4, wherein: the non-volatile storage element includes reversibleresistance switching material and the vertically oriented bit lineincludes silicon that has been annealed to reduce trap depth of thereversible resistance switching material to less than 1.0 eV.
 6. Themethod of claim 5, wherein: the reversible resistance switching materialhas a thickness chosen so that a fresh non-volatile storage elementbefore a forming process is in a range of 10 to 1000 times moreresistive than a high resistance state after a reset operation.
 7. Amethod of operating a non-volatile storage element, comprising: applyinga forming voltage to a non-volatile storage element with a polarity ofvoltage such that an electrode with a lower electron injection energybarrier acts as a cathode and an electrode with a higher electroninjection energy barrier acts as an anode, and limiting current throughthe non-volatile storage element to be lower than maximum current forthe non-volatile storage element while applying the forming voltage, theelectrode with the lower electron injection energy barrier is avertically oriented bit line and the electrode with the higher electroninjection energy barrier is a word line, the applying the formingvoltage includes applying selected voltages to the vertically orientedbit line and the word line, the non-volatile storage element includesreversible resistance switching material and the vertically oriented bitline includes silicon that has been annealed to reduce trap depth of thereversible resistance switching material to less than 1.0 eV, the bitline is connected to a vertically oriented select device, the verticallyoriented select device is connected to a global bit line and a selectline, the global bit line is connected to a bit line driver, theapplying a forming voltage includes applying an intermediate voltage tothe select line so that the vertically oriented select device ispartially on and is limiting the current through the bit line, theintermediate voltage is less than a selected voltage during SET andRESET operations and more than an unselected voltage during SET andRESET operations; performing a sensing operation; and determining if thenon-volatile storage element is in low resistance condition based on thesensing operation.